Data Structures and Algorithms: cram pack

Formula sheets, the key method steps for every topic and 6 practice problems, with full solutions at the back.

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1Formulas and methods

Graph theory

Handshake lemma
Σ deg(v) = 2|E|
Complete graphs
|E(Kn)| = n(n − 1)/2, |E(Km,n)| = m·n
Regular graph
|E| = n·k/2
Tree and forest
|E| = n − 1, |E| = n − c
Leaves of a tree
L = 2 + Σ (deg(v) − 2) over deg(v) ≥ 3
Euler
circuit: all degrees even; path: exactly 2 odd degrees
Hamilton circuits in Kn
(n − 1)!/2
Dijkstra update
d(v) = min(d(v), d(u) + w(u, v))
Walks of length L
(Mᴸ)ij

Method

  1. Write down the degree of every vertex; the degrees add up to twice the number of edges.
  2. For Euler questions, check that the graph is connected and count the vertices with odd degree.
  3. For trees, use n − 1 edges and the handshake lemma.
  4. For Dijkstra, keep a table of tentative distances and settle the smallest unsettled vertex each round.
  5. For a minimum spanning tree, sort the edges by weight and skip every edge that closes a cycle (Kruskal), or grow one tree from a start vertex (Prim).

2Practice problems

1.Algorithms & complexityMedium

What is the worst-case time complexity of quicksort?

  1. AO(n²)
  2. BO(n)
  3. CO(n log n)
  4. DO(log n)
2.Algorithms & complexityHard

Which definition of the class NP is correct?

  1. AProblems that cannot be solved in polynomial time
  2. BProblems that no algorithm can solve
  3. CProblems that are not polynomial
  4. DDecision problems whose yes-answers can be verified in polynomial time given a certificate
3.Data structuresMedium

What is the worst-case height of a binary search tree with n nodes if keys are inserted in sorted order?

  1. Alog₂ n
  2. B√n
  3. C1
  4. Dn (it becomes a linked list)
4.Data structuresHard

Which property keeps every B-tree perfectly balanced?

  1. AThe keys are stored only in the root
  2. BEach node stores one key
  3. CEvery node has exactly two children
  4. DAll leaves are at the same depth
5.Graph theoryMedium
ABCDEFEuler circuitEuler path, no circuitneither

Does the connected graph have an Euler circuit, an Euler path that is not a circuit, or neither? Click your answer.

|V| = 6|E| = 9
  1. 1Euler circuit
  2. 2Euler path, no circuit
  3. 3neither
6.Graph theoryHard
2211137314129ABCDEF

Use Dijkstra’s algorithm to find the length d(F) of the shortest path from A to F in the weighted graph.

start: Aend: F
d(F) =

3Solutions

1.Algorithms & complexity

Answer: A · O(n²)

Why this is the answer

With consistently bad pivots (e.g. already sorted input and first-element pivot) partitions are unbalanced, giving O(n²). The average case is O(n log n).

Answer

A · O(n²)
2.Algorithms & complexity

Answer: D · Decision problems whose yes-answers can be verified in polynomial time given a certificate

Why this is the answer

For an NP problem, a proposed solution (certificate) can be checked quickly, for example verifying a given assignment satisfies a Boolean formula.

Answer

D · Decision problems whose yes-answers can be verified in polynomial time given a certificate
3.Data structures

Answer: D · n (it becomes a linked list)

Why this is the answer

Sorted insertions create a degenerate tree with height n, making searches O(n). Balanced trees prevent this.

Answer

D · n (it becomes a linked list)
4.Data structures

Answer: D · All leaves are at the same depth

Why this is the answer

Nodes split upwards when full and the tree only gets taller when the root splits, so all leaves always stay on the same level.

Answer

D · All leaves are at the same depth
5.Graph theory

Answer: Euler path, no circuit

Euler, Hamilton and trees: a connected graph has an Euler circuit (every edge once, back to the start) when every vertex has even degree, and an Euler path that is not a circuit when exactly two vertices have odd degree; the path then runs from one odd vertex to the other. A Hamilton circuit visits every vertex once; Kn has (n − 1)!/2 of them. A tree on n vertices has n − 1 edges, and a connected graph with m edges keeps a spanning tree after removing m − n + 1 edges.

Degrees

deg(A) = 2, deg(B) = 4, deg(C) = 3, deg(D) = 3, deg(E) = 4, deg(F) = 2

Odd vertices

C, D → 2
Euler path, no circuit

Answer

Euler path, no circuit

The Euler path starts at one odd vertex and ends at the other.

6.Graph theory

Answer: d(F) = 21

Shortest paths and spanning trees: Dijkstra’s algorithm settles one vertex per round: the unsettled vertex with the smallest tentative distance. Its distance is then final, and every neighbour v gets d(v) = min(d(v), d(u) + w(u, v)). Kruskal’s algorithm builds a minimum spanning tree by taking the edges from light to heavy and skipping any edge that would close a cycle; Prim’s algorithm grows one tree from a start vertex by always adding the lightest edge that leaves it. A spanning tree of n vertices has n − 1 edges.

Dijkstra round by round

Each line: the vertex settled, its final distance, and the neighbours whose distance improves.

A (0): B: 2, C: 2
B (2): D: 15, E: 11
C (2): E: 9
E (9): D: 12, F: 21
D (12)
F (21)

Shortest path

A → C → E → F
d(F) = 21

Answer

d(F) = 21

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