Data Structures and Algorithms: cram pack

Formula sheets, the key method steps for every topic and 6 practice problems, with full solutions at the back.

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1Formulas and methods

Graph theory

Handshake lemma
Σ deg(v) = 2|E|
Complete graphs
|E(Kn)| = n(n − 1)/2, |E(Km,n)| = m·n
Regular graph
|E| = n·k/2
Tree and forest
|E| = n − 1, |E| = n − c
Leaves of a tree
L = 2 + Σ (deg(v) − 2) over deg(v) ≥ 3
Euler
circuit: all degrees even; path: exactly 2 odd degrees
Hamilton circuits in Kn
(n − 1)!/2
Dijkstra update
d(v) = min(d(v), d(u) + w(u, v))
Walks of length L
(Mᴸ)ij

Method

  1. Write down the degree of every vertex; the degrees add up to twice the number of edges.
  2. For Euler questions, check that the graph is connected and count the vertices with odd degree.
  3. For trees, use n − 1 edges and the handshake lemma.
  4. For Dijkstra, keep a table of tentative distances and settle the smallest unsettled vertex each round.
  5. For a minimum spanning tree, sort the edges by weight and skip every edge that closes a cycle (Kruskal), or grow one tree from a start vertex (Prim).

2Practice problems

1.Algorithms & complexityMedium

What is the time complexity of: for i = 1 to n: for j = 1 to i: do O(1) work?

  1. AO(n²)
  2. BO(n log n)
  3. CO(n)
  4. DO(n³)
2.Algorithms & complexityHard

Why is the average lookup in a hash table O(1) but the worst case O(n)?

  1. AHash functions are slow
  2. BKeys must be sorted first
  3. CArrays have O(n) access
  4. DMany keys may collide into the same bucket
3.Data structuresMedium

A circular buffer (ring buffer) is commonly used to implement:

  1. AA fixed-size queue
  2. BA binary search tree
  3. CA graph traversal
  4. DA hash function
4.Data structuresHard

The keys 5, 3, 8, 1 are inserted in this order into an empty array-based binary min-heap. What is the final array?

  1. A[3, 1, 8, 5]
  2. B[1, 3, 5, 8]
  3. C[1, 5, 8, 3]
  4. D[1, 3, 8, 5]
5.Graph theoryMedium
ABCDEFGEuler circuitEuler path, no circuitneither

Does the connected graph have an Euler circuit, an Euler path that is not a circuit, or neither? Click your answer.

|V| = 7|E| = 12
  1. 1Euler circuit
  2. 2Euler path, no circuit
  3. 3neither
6.Graph theoryHard
14614713101415ABCDEF

Use Dijkstra’s algorithm to find the length d(F) of the shortest path from A to F in the weighted graph.

start: Aend: F
d(F) =

3Solutions

1.Algorithms & complexity

Answer: A · O(n²)

Why this is the answer

The inner body runs n(n + 1) / 2 times in total, which is still quadratic.

Answer

A · O(n²)
2.Algorithms & complexity

Answer: D · Many keys may collide into the same bucket

Why this is the answer

With a good hash function and load factor, buckets stay short on average; adversarial or poor hashing can put all keys in one bucket.

Answer

D · Many keys may collide into the same bucket
3.Data structures

Answer: A · A fixed-size queue

Why this is the answer

A ring buffer uses head and tail indices that wrap around, giving O(1) enqueue and dequeue in fixed memory.

Answer

A · A fixed-size queue
4.Data structures

Answer: D · [1, 3, 8, 5]

Why this is the answer

After 5, 3, 8 the array is [3, 5, 8]; 1 goes to index 3, swaps with its parent 5 and then with 3, giving [1, 3, 8, 5].

Answer

D · [1, 3, 8, 5]
5.Graph theory

Answer: Euler circuit

Euler, Hamilton and trees: a connected graph has an Euler circuit (every edge once, back to the start) when every vertex has even degree, and an Euler path that is not a circuit when exactly two vertices have odd degree; the path then runs from one odd vertex to the other. A Hamilton circuit visits every vertex once; Kn has (n − 1)!/2 of them. A tree on n vertices has n − 1 edges, and a connected graph with m edges keeps a spanning tree after removing m − n + 1 edges.

Degrees

deg(A) = 2, deg(B) = 4, deg(C) = 4, deg(D) = 4, deg(E) = 4, deg(F) = 2, deg(G) = 4

Odd vertices

0
Euler circuit

Answer

Euler circuit
6.Graph theory

Answer: d(F) = 34

Shortest paths and spanning trees: Dijkstra’s algorithm settles one vertex per round: the unsettled vertex with the smallest tentative distance. Its distance is then final, and every neighbour v gets d(v) = min(d(v), d(u) + w(u, v)). Kruskal’s algorithm builds a minimum spanning tree by taking the edges from light to heavy and skipping any edge that would close a cycle; Prim’s algorithm grows one tree from a start vertex by always adding the lightest edge that leaves it. A spanning tree of n vertices has n − 1 edges.

Dijkstra round by round

Each line: the vertex settled, its final distance, and the neighbours whose distance improves.

A (0): B: 14, C: 6
C (6): E: 19
B (14): D: 21
E (19): F: 34
D (21)
F (34)

Shortest path

A → C → E → F
d(F) = 34

Answer

d(F) = 34

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