Data Structures and Algorithms: cram pack

Formula sheets, the key method steps for every topic and 6 practice problems, with full solutions at the back.

New problemsBack to the course

In the print window, choose “Save as PDF” to keep a copy on your device.

1Formulas and methods

Graph theory

Handshake lemma
Σ deg(v) = 2|E|
Complete graphs
|E(Kn)| = n(n − 1)/2, |E(Km,n)| = m·n
Regular graph
|E| = n·k/2
Tree and forest
|E| = n − 1, |E| = n − c
Leaves of a tree
L = 2 + Σ (deg(v) − 2) over deg(v) ≥ 3
Euler
circuit: all degrees even; path: exactly 2 odd degrees
Hamilton circuits in Kn
(n − 1)!/2
Dijkstra update
d(v) = min(d(v), d(u) + w(u, v))
Walks of length L
(Mᴸ)ij

Method

  1. Write down the degree of every vertex; the degrees add up to twice the number of edges.
  2. For Euler questions, check that the graph is connected and count the vertices with odd degree.
  3. For trees, use n − 1 edges and the handshake lemma.
  4. For Dijkstra, keep a table of tentative distances and settle the smallest unsettled vertex each round.
  5. For a minimum spanning tree, sort the edges by weight and skip every edge that closes a cycle (Kruskal), or grow one tree from a start vertex (Prim).

2Practice problems

1.Algorithms & complexityMedium

With coins of 1, 3 and 4 and an amount of 6, how many coins does the greedy "largest coin first" method use, compared to the optimum?

  1. AGreedy uses 4 coins; the optimum is 3
  2. BGreedy uses 3 coins; the optimum is 3
  3. CGreedy uses 2 coins; the optimum is 2
  4. DGreedy uses 3 coins; the optimum is 2
2.Algorithms & complexityHard

Shortest simple paths can be found in polynomial time. What is known about finding the longest simple path between two vertices in a general graph?

  1. AIt is undecidable
  2. BIt is NP-hard
  3. CIt can be solved by Dijkstra's algorithm with negated weights
  4. DIt is always solvable in O(V + E)
3.Data structuresMedium

Which data structure does a running program use to keep track of active function calls and their local variables?

  1. AThe heap memory queue
  2. BA binary search tree of frames
  3. CA hash table of functions
  4. DThe call stack
4.Data structuresHard

The union-find (disjoint set) structure with union by rank and path compression has an amortised cost per operation of:

  1. AO(n²)
  2. BO(log n) exactly
  3. CO(n)
  4. DO(α(n)), the inverse Ackermann function, which is practically constant
5.Graph theoryMedium
ABCDEEuler circuitEuler path, no circuitneither

Does the connected graph have an Euler circuit, an Euler path that is not a circuit, or neither? Click your answer.

|V| = 5|E| = 6
  1. 1Euler circuit
  2. 2Euler path, no circuit
  3. 3neither
6.Graph theoryHard
1466124119ABCDEFG

Use Dijkstra’s algorithm to find the length d(F) of the shortest path from A to F in the weighted graph.

start: Aend: F
d(F) =

3Solutions

1.Algorithms & complexity

Answer: D · Greedy uses 3 coins; the optimum is 2

Why this is the answer

Greedy takes 4 + 1 + 1 = 3 coins, but 3 + 3 uses only 2, so greedy is not optimal for this coin system; dynamic programming is.

Answer

D · Greedy uses 3 coins; the optimum is 2
2.Algorithms & complexity

Answer: B · It is NP-hard

Why this is the answer

A longest simple path of length V − 1 is a Hamiltonian path, an NP-complete problem; on directed acyclic graphs, however, it is solvable in linear time.

Answer

B · It is NP-hard
3.Data structures

Answer: D · The call stack

Why this is the answer

Each call pushes a stack frame and each return pops it, which is why the most recent call finishes first.

Answer

D · The call stack
4.Data structures

Answer: D · O(α(n)), the inverse Ackermann function, which is practically constant

Why this is the answer

With both optimisations, operations take O(α(n)) amortised time; α(n) ≤ 4 for any realistic n.

Answer

D · O(α(n)), the inverse Ackermann function, which is practically constant
5.Graph theory

Answer: Euler circuit

Euler, Hamilton and trees: a connected graph has an Euler circuit (every edge once, back to the start) when every vertex has even degree, and an Euler path that is not a circuit when exactly two vertices have odd degree; the path then runs from one odd vertex to the other. A Hamilton circuit visits every vertex once; Kn has (n − 1)!/2 of them. A tree on n vertices has n − 1 edges, and a connected graph with m edges keeps a spanning tree after removing m − n + 1 edges.

Degrees

deg(A) = 2, deg(B) = 4, deg(C) = 2, deg(D) = 2, deg(E) = 2

Odd vertices

0
Euler circuit

Answer

Euler circuit
6.Graph theory

Answer: d(F) = 9

Shortest paths and spanning trees: Dijkstra’s algorithm settles one vertex per round: the unsettled vertex with the smallest tentative distance. Its distance is then final, and every neighbour v gets d(v) = min(d(v), d(u) + w(u, v)). Kruskal’s algorithm builds a minimum spanning tree by taking the edges from light to heavy and skipping any edge that would close a cycle; Prim’s algorithm grows one tree from a start vertex by always adding the lightest edge that leaves it. A spanning tree of n vertices has n − 1 edges.

Dijkstra round by round

Each line: the vertex settled, its final distance, and the neighbours whose distance improves.

A (0): B: 14, C: 6
C (6): B: 12, E: 8
E (8): F: 9
F (9): D: 13
B (12): G: 13
D (13)
G (13)

Shortest path

A → C → E → F
d(F) = 9

Answer

d(F) = 9

ExamProblems · examproblems.com/courses/data-structures-and-algorithms