Data Structures and Algorithms: cram pack

Formula sheets, the key method steps for every topic and 6 practice problems, with full solutions at the back.

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1Formulas and methods

Graph theory

Handshake lemma
Σ deg(v) = 2|E|
Complete graphs
|E(Kn)| = n(n − 1)/2, |E(Km,n)| = m·n
Regular graph
|E| = n·k/2
Tree and forest
|E| = n − 1, |E| = n − c
Leaves of a tree
L = 2 + Σ (deg(v) − 2) over deg(v) ≥ 3
Euler
circuit: all degrees even; path: exactly 2 odd degrees
Hamilton circuits in Kn
(n − 1)!/2
Dijkstra update
d(v) = min(d(v), d(u) + w(u, v))
Walks of length L
(Mᴸ)ij

Method

  1. Write down the degree of every vertex; the degrees add up to twice the number of edges.
  2. For Euler questions, check that the graph is connected and count the vertices with odd degree.
  3. For trees, use n − 1 edges and the handshake lemma.
  4. For Dijkstra, keep a table of tentative distances and settle the smallest unsettled vertex each round.
  5. For a minimum spanning tree, sort the edges by weight and skip every edge that closes a cycle (Kruskal), or grow one tree from a start vertex (Prim).

2Practice problems

1.Algorithms & complexityMedium

Why do many library sorting routines switch to insertion sort for very small subarrays?

  1. ARecursive algorithms cannot handle arrays below 10 elements
  2. BInsertion sort has little overhead and is fast on small or nearly sorted inputs
  3. CInsertion sort uses less memory than any other sorting algorithm on large inputs
  4. DInsertion sort is O(n log n) in the worst case
2.Algorithms & complexityHard

To show that a new problem X is NP-hard, what must you do?

  1. AReduce X to a known NP-hard problem in polynomial time
  2. BShow that X can be verified in polynomial time
  3. CShow that X has no polynomial algorithm for small inputs
  4. DReduce a known NP-hard problem to X in polynomial time
3.Data structuresMedium

How long does it take to check whether the edge (u, v) exists using an adjacency matrix?

  1. AO(E)
  2. BO(1)
  3. CO(log V)
  4. DO(V)
4.Data structuresHard

What is the running time of breadth-first search on a graph with V vertices stored as an adjacency matrix?

  1. AO(V)
  2. BO(V²)
  3. CO(V + E)
  4. DO(E log V)
5.Graph theoryMedium

A connected graph has 6 vertices and 9 edges. How many edges k must be removed to leave a spanning tree?

|V| = 6|E| = 9
k =
6.Graph theoryHard
1916177220ABCDE

Kruskal’s algorithm builds a minimum spanning tree. Click the edge it adds as edge number 2; skipped edges do not count.

k = 2
  1. 1edge AB
  2. 2edge AC
  3. 3edge BC
  4. 4edge BD
  5. 5edge CE
  6. 6edge DE
  7. 7edge BE

3Solutions

1.Algorithms & complexity

Answer: B · Insertion sort has little overhead and is fast on small or nearly sorted inputs

Why this is the answer

For small n the simple loop of insertion sort beats the recursion overhead of quicksort or merge sort, even though it is O(n²).

Answer

B · Insertion sort has little overhead and is fast on small or nearly sorted inputs
2.Algorithms & complexity

Answer: D · Reduce a known NP-hard problem to X in polynomial time

Why this is the answer

If a known hard problem can be transformed into X efficiently, a fast algorithm for X would solve the known problem too.

Answer

D · Reduce a known NP-hard problem to X in polynomial time
3.Data structures

Answer: B · O(1)

Why this is the answer

The matrix entry at row u, column v tells you immediately whether the edge exists; an adjacency list may need to scan u's neighbours.

Answer

B · O(1)
4.Data structures

Answer: B · O(V²)

Why this is the answer

Each of the V vertices scans a row of V entries, giving O(V²); with adjacency lists BFS is O(V + E).

Answer

B · O(V²)
5.Graph theory

Answer: k = 4

Euler, Hamilton and trees: a connected graph has an Euler circuit (every edge once, back to the start) when every vertex has even degree, and an Euler path that is not a circuit when exactly two vertices have odd degree; the path then runs from one odd vertex to the other. A Hamilton circuit visits every vertex once; Kn has (n − 1)!/2 of them. A tree on n vertices has n − 1 edges, and a connected graph with m edges keeps a spanning tree after removing m − n + 1 edges.

Edges of a spanning tree

6 − 1 = 5

Edges to remove

k = 9 − 5 = 4

Answer

k = 4
6.Graph theory

Answer: edge DE

Shortest paths and spanning trees: Dijkstra’s algorithm settles one vertex per round: the unsettled vertex with the smallest tentative distance. Its distance is then final, and every neighbour v gets d(v) = min(d(v), d(u) + w(u, v)). Kruskal’s algorithm builds a minimum spanning tree by taking the edges from light to heavy and skipping any edge that would close a cycle; Prim’s algorithm grows one tree from a start vertex by always adding the lightest edge that leaves it. A spanning tree of n vertices has n − 1 edges.

Kruskal’s algorithm

1. AB (1)
2. DE (2)
3. CE (7)
4. AC (9)

edge number 2

DE

Answer

edge DE

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