Digital Electronics: cram pack

Formula sheets, the key method steps for every topic and 6 practice problems, with full solutions at the back.

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1Formulas and methods

Number systems

Place values
binary 2k, octal 8k, hex 16k
To decimal
Σ dk·bk
From decimal
divide by the base, read the remainders bottom-up
Hex ↔ binary
one hex digit = 4 bits
Two’s complement
invert the bits and add 1

Digital logic: gates, K-maps & flip-flops

Basic gates
A·B, A + B, A′, (A·B)′, (A + B)′, A ⊕ B
Boolean rules
X + X′ = 1, X·X′ = 0, X + XY = X, XY + XY′ = X
De Morgan
(X·Y)′ = X′ + Y′, (X + Y)′ = X′·Y′
Karnaugh map order
00, 01, 11, 10 (Gray code)
Group of 2ᵏ cells
loses k variables
4-to-1 multiplexer
F = A′B′I0 + A′BI1 + AB′I2 + ABI3
Flip-flops
D: Q⁺ = D, T: Q⁺ = T ⊕ Q, JK: Q⁺ = JQ′ + K′Q
Counters
n-bit: 2ⁿ states; mod-N: smallest n with 2ⁿ ≥ N; fout = fclk/N
Ripple counter
fmax = 1/(n·tpd)
Ring and Johnson counters
n and 2n states

Method

  1. For a circuit, work from the inputs to the output one gate at a time and write the value on every wire, or write its expression and fill in the truth table.
  2. For simplification, put the 1s (and the don’t-cares as X) into a Karnaugh map with Gray-code rows and columns: 00, 01, 11, 10.
  3. Cover the 1s with as few and as large groups of 1, 2, 4, 8 or 16 cells as possible, wrapping round the edges; each group is one product term made of the variables that stay constant. Group the 0s for the POS form.
  4. For flip-flops and counters, read the inputs at each active clock edge, write the state after every edge, and remember that an n-bit counter wraps round after 2ⁿ states.

Data acquisition & sampling

Nyquist criterion
fs > 2·fmax, fN = fs/2
Alias frequency
fa = |f − k·fs|, k = round(f/fs)
Step size
1 LSB = VFSR/2ᴺ
Quantisation error (rounding)
±½ LSB
Truncating ADC code
D = ⌊Vin/LSB⌋
Bits for a resolution r
2ᴺ ≥ span/r
Ideal SQNR, full-scale sine
SQNR = 6.02·N + 1.76 dB
Data rate
channels × fs × N bit/s
Multiplexed ADC
fs = 1/(n·(tc + tset))
UART
Tb = 1/baud; 8N1 = 10 bits per byte; bytes/s = baud/bits per frame
Baud rate divider
baud = fclk/(16·D)

Method

  1. Write down what is given: sampling rate, signal frequencies, number of bits, input range, baud rate.
  2. For sampling questions, compare each frequency with fs/2; a higher frequency appears at fa = |f − k·fs| with the nearest multiple of fs.
  3. For resolution questions, find 1 LSB = VFSR/2ᴺ, or the smallest N with 2ᴺ ≥ span/resolution.
  4. For data rates and UART links, count everything that is sent: channels, samples per second, bits or whole bytes per sample, and the start, parity and stop bits of every frame.

2Practice problems

1.Number systemsMedium
8-bit two's complement0−12806403201608040201

Set the bits so they store −82 in 8-bit two's complement. Read as an unsigned number, what is the pattern's value U?

N = −828 bit
U =
2.Number systemsHard
16 bit1 px800 px600 pxM = ? KiB

An uncompressed image is 800 × 600 pixels with 16 bits per pixel. How much memory M does it take, in KiB (1 KiB = 1024 bytes)?

800 × 600 px16 bit/px1 KiB = 1024 B
M = KiB
3.Digital logic: gates, K-maps & flip-flopsMedium
ABCD000111100001111011111

In this Karnaugh map exactly one 1 has no neighbouring 1, so it stays a group of one cell (a full minterm of four literals) in the minimal SOP form. Neighbours across the map edges count. Click that cell.

F = Σm(2, 5, 6, 14, 15)
  1. 1AB = 00, CD = 00
  2. 2AB = 00, CD = 01
  3. 3AB = 00, CD = 11
  4. 4AB = 00, CD = 10
  5. 5AB = 01, CD = 00
  6. 6AB = 01, CD = 01
  7. 7AB = 01, CD = 11
  8. 8AB = 01, CD = 10
  9. 9AB = 11, CD = 00
  10. 10AB = 11, CD = 01
  11. 11AB = 11, CD = 11
  12. 12AB = 11, CD = 10
  13. 13AB = 10, CD = 00
  14. 14AB = 10, CD = 01
  15. 15AB = 10, CD = 11
  16. 16AB = 10, CD = 10
4.Digital logic: gates, K-maps & flip-flopsHard
ABCD00011110000111101011030214051716012013X15114X819111110

For F(A, B, C, D) = Σm(0, 1, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 14) + d(8, 15), where d marks the don't-care conditions, find the number N of essential prime implicants.

F(A, B, C, D) = Σm(0, 1, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 14) + d(8, 15)
N =
5.Data acquisition & samplingMedium
Vin​N = 125 V2ᴺ − 101 LSB4.317 V?

A 12-bit ADC with an input range of 0 to 5 V truncates: its output code is ⌊Vin/LSB⌋ with 1 LSB = VFSR/2ᴺ. Find the decimal output code D for an input of 4.317 V.

N = 12VFSR = 5 VVin = 4.317 V
D =
6.Data acquisition & samplingHard
Vin​N = ?VFSR​2ᴺ − 101 LSB

An audio measurement needs an ideal signal-to-quantisation-noise ratio of at least 70 dB for a full-scale sine wave. Find the smallest number of ADC bits N.

SQNR ≥ 70 dB
N =

3Solutions

1.Number systems

Answer: U = 174

Setting bits: each bit is worth a power of two (128, 64, …, 1). One hex digit is exactly four bits, and in 8-bit two's complement the leftmost bit is worth −128. Bitwise operations work on each bit position separately.

Invert and add one

82 = 0101 0010
inverted: 1010 1101
+1 → 1010 1110

Read it as unsigned

1010 1110₂ = 256 − 82 = 174

Answer

U = 174
2.Number systems

Answer: M = 937.5 KiB

Positional number systems: each digit is worth its value times a power of the base. In binary the places are worth 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, …; in hexadecimal 1, 16, 256, …, with A–F standing for 10–15. In 8-bit two's complement the leftmost bit is worth −128 instead of +128, which is how negative numbers are stored.

Bits and bytes

800·600·16 = 7680000 bit = 960000 B

Convert to KiB

960000/1024 = 937.5 KiB

Answer

M = 937.5 KiB
3.Digital logic: gates, K-maps & flip-flops

Answer: AB = 01, CD = 01

Karnaugh maps: the cells are ordered in Gray code (00, 01, 11, 10), so neighbouring cells, including the ones across the edges, differ in exactly one variable. Group the 1s in rectangles of 1, 2, 4, 8 or 16 cells, as large as possible and as few as possible, until every 1 is covered. Each group is one product term: the variables that stay constant inside it. A group of 2ᵏ cells loses k variables. Don't-cares (X) may be used to make groups bigger but never have to be covered. Grouping the 0s instead gives the minimal POS form.

Neighbours of each 1

A 1 with a neighbouring 1 can join a group of two or more.

m5: m4, m7, m1, m13 → 0
ABCD000111100001111011111

The isolated 1

m5 = A′BC′D → AB = 01, CD = 01

Answer

AB = 01, CD = 01
4.Digital logic: gates, K-maps & flip-flops

Answer: N = 2

Karnaugh maps: the cells are ordered in Gray code (00, 01, 11, 10), so neighbouring cells, including the ones across the edges, differ in exactly one variable. Group the 1s in rectangles of 1, 2, 4, 8 or 16 cells, as large as possible and as few as possible, until every 1 is covered. Each group is one product term: the variables that stay constant inside it. A group of 2ᵏ cells loses k variables. Don't-cares (X) may be used to make groups bigger but never have to be covered. Grouping the 0s instead gives the minimal POS form.

Prime implicants

The largest groups that can be formed from 1s and Xs.

B′C′, BC, AC, A′C′D′, AB′, A′BD′
ABCD00011110000111101011030214051716012013X15114X819111110

Essential prime implicants

B′C′, BC
N = 2

Answer

N = 2
5.Data acquisition & sampling

Answer: D = 3536

ADC resolution: an N-bit converter divides its full-scale range VFSR into 2ᴺ codes, from 0 to 2ᴺ − 1. One step is 1 LSB = VFSR/2ᴺ: the smallest change the converter can show. A truncating ADC gives the code ⌊Vin/LSB⌋; a rounding ADC is never more than ½ LSB away from the true value, its quantisation error. Every extra bit halves the LSB and adds about 6 dB to the ideal signal-to-quantisation-noise ratio SQNR = 6.02·N + 1.76 dB for a full-scale sine. To reach a resolution r over a span, choose the smallest N with 2ᴺ ≥ span/r.

Step size

1 LSB = 5/212 = 1.221 mV

Code

Vin/LSB = 4317/1.221 = 3536
code = ⌊3536⌋ = 3536

Answer

D = 3536

In binary that is 110111010000.

6.Data acquisition & sampling

Answer: N = 12

ADC resolution: an N-bit converter divides its full-scale range VFSR into 2ᴺ codes, from 0 to 2ᴺ − 1. One step is 1 LSB = VFSR/2ᴺ: the smallest change the converter can show. A truncating ADC gives the code ⌊Vin/LSB⌋; a rounding ADC is never more than ½ LSB away from the true value, its quantisation error. Every extra bit halves the LSB and adds about 6 dB to the ideal signal-to-quantisation-noise ratio SQNR = 6.02·N + 1.76 dB for a full-scale sine. To reach a resolution r over a span, choose the smallest N with 2ᴺ ≥ span/r.

Solve for N

N ≥ (70 − 1.76)/6.02 = 11.34

Round up

N = 12
check: 6.02·12 + 1.76 = 74 dB ≥ 70 dB

Answer

N = 12

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