Discrete Mathematics: cram pack

Truth tables: a formula with n different variables has 2ⁿ rows, one for every combination of truth values (1 = true, 0 = false). Work from the inside out and give every subformula its own column. ¬a flips the value; a ∧ b is 1 only when both are 1; a ∨ b is 0 only when both are 0; a → b is 0 only when a = 1 and b = 0; a ↔ b is 1 when both sides are equal.

Quantifiers and arguments: ¬∀x P(x) ≡ ∃x ¬P(x) and ¬∃x P(x) ≡ ∀x ¬P(x). Move a negation inwards, swap every quantifier it passes, and negate the inner formula with the propositional laws, such as ¬(a → b) ≡ a ∧ ¬b. An argument is valid when the conclusion is 1 in every row in which all premises are 1. A single row with true premises and a false conclusion is a counterexample and shows the argument is invalid.

Sets and Venn diagrams: A ∪ B holds the elements in A or B (or both), A ∩ B the elements in both, A − B the elements of A that are not in B, and the complement A′ everything in U that is not in A. In a Venn diagram every set expression is a union of regions, so count it region by region. Inclusion–exclusion: |A ∪ B| = |A| + |B| − |A ∩ B|, and |A ∪ B ∪ C| = |A| + |B| + |C| − |A ∩ B| − |A ∩ C| − |B ∩ C| + |A ∩ B ∩ C|.

Functions and counting: a function f: A → B gives every element of A exactly one image in B. f is injective (one-to-one) when different elements have different images, surjective (onto) when every element of B is an image, and bijective when both hold. With |A| = m and |B| = n there are nᵐ functions, n!/(n − m)! injective ones (m ≤ n), and by inclusion–exclusion Σ (−1)ᵏ·C(n, k)·(n − k)ᵐ surjective ones. |𝒫(A)| = 2ᵐ and |A × B| = m·n.

Euler, Hamilton and trees: a connected graph has an Euler circuit (every edge once, back to the start) when every vertex has even degree, and an Euler path that is not a circuit when exactly two vertices have odd degree; the path then runs from one odd vertex to the other. A Hamilton circuit visits every vertex once; K_n has (n − 1)!/2 of them. A tree on n vertices has n − 1 edges, and a connected graph with m edges keeps a spanning tree after removing m − n + 1 edges.

Shortest paths and spanning trees: Dijkstra’s algorithm settles one vertex per round: the unsettled vertex with the smallest tentative distance. Its distance is then final, and every neighbour v gets d(v) = min(d(v), d(u) + w(u, v)). Kruskal’s algorithm builds a minimum spanning tree by taking the edges from light to heavy and skipping any edge that would close a cycle; Prim’s algorithm grows one tree from a start vertex by always adding the lightest edge that leaves it. A spanning tree of n vertices has n − 1 edges.

Inverses and congruences: a has an inverse modulo n exactly when gcd(a, n) = 1. The extended Euclidean algorithm writes 1 = s·n + t·a, and then a⁻¹ ≡ t (mod n). A congruence a·x ≡ b (mod n) with gcd(a, n) = 1 has the solution x ≡ a⁻¹·b. Two congruences x ≡ r₁ (mod m₁) and x ≡ r₂ (mod m₂) with coprime moduli have one solution modulo m₁·m₂ (Chinese remainder theorem). Euler’s φ(n) counts the numbers from 1 to n that are coprime to n: φ(n) = n·∏(1 − 1/p).

Inverses and congruences: a has an inverse modulo n exactly when gcd(a, n) = 1. The extended Euclidean algorithm writes 1 = s·n + t·a, and then a⁻¹ ≡ t (mod n). A congruence a·x ≡ b (mod n) with gcd(a, n) = 1 has the solution x ≡ a⁻¹·b. Two congruences x ≡ r₁ (mod m₁) and x ≡ r₂ (mod m₂) with coprime moduli have one solution modulo m₁·m₂ (Chinese remainder theorem). Euler’s φ(n) counts the numbers from 1 to n that are coprime to n: φ(n) = n·∏(1 − 1/p).