Engineering Mathematics 2: cram pack

Second-order linear equations: for y″ + b·y′ + c·y = 0 try y = e^rt: this gives the characteristic equation r² + b·r + c = 0. Two real roots r₁ ≠ r₂ give y = A·e^r₁t + B·e^r₂t (overdamped); a double root r gives y = (A + Bt)·e^rt (critically damped); complex roots −α ± jω give y = e^−αt(A cos ωt + B sin ωt) (underdamped, oscillating). The initial values y(0) and y′(0) fix A and B. Written as y″ + 2ζω_ny′ + ω_n²y = 0, ω_n is the natural frequency and ζ the damping ratio: ζ < 1 oscillates. With a constant input, y″ + by′ + cy = c·K, the solution is the steady value K plus the free response.

First-order differential equations: dy/dt = k·y has the solution y = y₀·e^kt (growth for k > 0, decay for k < 0); a half-life T gives k = ln 2/T. Newton's law of cooling, dT/dt = −k·(T − Tₐ), gives T(t) = Tₐ + (T₀ − Tₐ)·e^−kt. A linear equation y′ + p(x)·y = q(x) is solved with the integrating factor μ = e^{∫p dx}: (μy)′ = μq, so μy = ∫μq dx + C.

Matrices: the determinant of a 2×2 matrix is ad − bc. For 3×3, expand along a row: each entry times the determinant of the 2×2 matrix left after removing its row and column, with alternating signs + − +. Eigenvalues λ solve det(A − λI) = 0; for 2×2 that is λ² − (trace)·λ + det = 0.

Matrices: the determinant of a 2×2 matrix is ad − bc. For 3×3, expand along a row: each entry times the determinant of the 2×2 matrix left after removing its row and column, with alternating signs + − +. Eigenvalues λ solve det(A − λI) = 0; for 2×2 that is λ² − (trace)·λ + det = 0.

Dot product: a·b = a_xb_x + a_yb_y + a_zb_z = |a|·|b|·cos θ, a scalar. It gives the angle between two vectors, cos θ = a·b/(|a|·|b|), and it is zero when they are perpendicular. The scalar projection of a onto b is a·b/|b|, and a constant force F moving through a displacement d does work W = F·d.

Cross product: a × b = (a_yb_z − a_zb_y, a_zb_x − a_xb_z, a_xb_y − a_yb_x) is perpendicular to both vectors, and |a × b| = |a|·|b|·sin θ is the area of the parallelogram they span (the triangle has half of it). Order matters: b × a = −(a × b). The moment of a force F applied at point A about point O is M_O = r × F, with r = A − O.

Volumes of revolution: rotating the region under y = f(x) from x = a to x = b about the x-axis makes a solid whose cross-section at x is a disc of radius f(x). Adding the discs gives V = π∫ₐᵇ f(x)² dx. When the region lies between an outer curve R(x) and an inner curve r(x), each slice is a washer: V = π∫ₐᵇ (R(x)² − r(x)²) dx. Square the radii before you subtract them.

Integration by parts: ∫u·dv = u·v − ∫v·du, from the product rule. Choose u as the factor that gets simpler when you differentiate it (a power of x, or ln x), and dv as the factor you can integrate (eˣ, sin x, cos x, or x when u = ln x). For a definite integral, evaluate u·v at both limits: ∫ₐᵇ u dv = [u·v]ₐᵇ − ∫ₐᵇ v du. A factor x² needs two rounds.

Gradient: ∇f = (f_x, f_y) points in the direction of steepest ascent, and |∇f| is the largest rate of change. The directional derivative along a direction v is D_uf = ∇f·u with the unit vector u = v/|v|. The tangent plane at (a, b) is z = f(a, b) + f_x(a, b)(x − a) + f_y(a, b)(y − b); it gives the linear approximation of f near that point. Chain rule: dz/dt = f_x·dx/dt + f_y·dy/dt.

Critical points and double integrals: a critical point has f_x = f_y = 0. Second-derivative test with D = f_xxf_yy − f_xy²: D > 0 and f_xx > 0 is a local minimum, D > 0 and f_xx < 0 a local maximum, D < 0 a saddle point, and D = 0 decides nothing. For a double integral over a general region, let the inner limits be the curves that bound the region; for discs and sectors use polar coordinates, x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ and dA = r dr dθ (do not forget the factor r).

Convergence: if the terms do not tend to 0 the series diverges (n-th term test). Σ1/kᵖ converges only for p > 1, and Σrᵏ only for |r| < 1. Compare a series with one of these when its terms behave like them for large k. Ratio test: L = lim |a_k+1/a_k|; root test: L = lim |a_k|^1/k. L < 1 converges, L > 1 diverges, L = 1 decides nothing. A power series Σc_k(x − x₀)ᵏ converges for |x − x₀| < R with R = lim |c_k/c_k+1|; an alternating series with terms decreasing to 0 converges.

Taylor polynomials: near x = a a smooth function is approximated by Pₙ(x) = f(a) + f′(a)(x − a) + f″(a)(x − a)²/2! + … + f⁽ⁿ⁾(a)(x − a)ⁿ/n!; for a = 0 this is the Maclaurin polynomial. Standard series: eˣ = Σxᵏ/k!, sin x = x − x³/3! + x⁵/5! − …, cos x = 1 − x²/2! + x⁴/4! − …, ln(1 + x) = x − x²/2 + x³/3 − …, 1/(1 − x) = Σxᵏ. Lagrange error bound: |f(x) − Pₙ(x)| ≤ M·|x − a|ⁿ⁺¹/(n + 1)!, where M is the largest value of |f⁽ⁿ⁺¹⁾| between a and x.

Laplace transform: F(s) = ∫₀^∞ f(t)·e^−st dt turns derivatives into multiplications by s: ℒ{f′} = sF(s) − f(0), ℒ{f″} = s²F(s) − s·f(0) − f′(0). Standard pairs: 1 ↔ 1/s, e^−at ↔ 1/(s + a), t·e^−at ↔ 1/(s + a)², sin ωt ↔ ω/(s² + ω²), cos ωt ↔ s/(s² + ω²), and a shift s → s + σ multiplies the time function by e^−σt. To invert a rational F(s), split it into partial fractions: the residue of a simple pole p is A = [(s − p)·F(s)] at s = p. Final value theorem: f(∞) = lim_s→0 s·F(s), valid only when all poles of s·F(s) lie in the left half-plane. Initial value theorem: f(0⁺) = lim_s→∞ s·F(s).

Laplace transform: F(s) = ∫₀^∞ f(t)·e^−st dt turns derivatives into multiplications by s: ℒ{f′} = sF(s) − f(0), ℒ{f″} = s²F(s) − s·f(0) − f′(0). Standard pairs: 1 ↔ 1/s, e^−at ↔ 1/(s + a), t·e^−at ↔ 1/(s + a)², sin ωt ↔ ω/(s² + ω²), cos ωt ↔ s/(s² + ω²), and a shift s → s + σ multiplies the time function by e^−σt. To invert a rational F(s), split it into partial fractions: the residue of a simple pole p is A = [(s − p)·F(s)] at s = p. Final value theorem: f(∞) = lim_s→0 s·F(s), valid only when all poles of s·F(s) lie in the left half-plane. Initial value theorem: f(0⁺) = lim_s→∞ s·F(s).

Continuous convolution: y(t) = ∫ x(τ)·h(t − τ) dτ. Flip h, slide it to position t and integrate the product of the overlapping parts. For causal signals the integral runs from 0 to t. Useful results: the area of y is the area of x times the area of h; if x lasts from t₁ to t₂ and h from t₃ to t₄, y lasts from t₁ + t₃ to t₂ + t₄. For h(t) = e^−atu(t) and a step of height A, y(t) = (A/a)(1 − e^−at).

Impulse response and Fourier series: the impulse response h(t) describes an LTI system completely: for y′ + a·y = b·x it is h(t) = b·e^−atu(t), and for y[n] = a·y[n − 1] + b·x[n] it is h[n] = b·aⁿu[n]. A sinusoid cos ωt passes through with gain |H(jω)| and phase ∠H(jω), where H is the Fourier transform of h. A periodic signal is a sum of harmonics at k/T: a square wave of ±A has only odd harmonics with amplitudes 4A/(kπ), a triangle wave of peak A has 8A/(π²k²), and a pulse train of height A and duty cycle D has the mean A·D and the harmonics (2A/(kπ))·|sin(kπD)|.