FE Electrical and Computer exam practice: cram pack

Series and parallel resistors: in series the same current flows through each resistor and R = R₁ + R₂ + …. In parallel each resistor has the same voltage and 1/R = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂ + …. A ladder network is reduced one pair at a time until a single equivalent resistance remains.

Series and parallel resistors: in series the same current flows through each resistor and R = R₁ + R₂ + …. In parallel each resistor has the same voltage and 1/R = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂ + …. A ladder network is reduced one pair at a time until a single equivalent resistance remains.

Nodal analysis: choose a reference node, label the unknown node voltages, write Kirchhoff’s current law at each unknown node using Ohm’s law (I = ΔV/R), and solve the resulting equations.

Nodal analysis: choose a reference node, label the unknown node voltages, write Kirchhoff’s current law at each unknown node using Ohm’s law (I = ΔV/R), and solve the resulting equations.

Mesh analysis: give each window of a planar circuit its own loop current, write Kirchhoff’s voltage law around each loop (sum of drops = sum of rises), and solve. Branch currents are the mesh current, or the difference of two mesh currents on a shared branch.

Mesh analysis: give each window of a planar circuit its own loop current, write Kirchhoff’s voltage law around each loop (sum of drops = sum of rises), and solve. Branch currents are the mesh current, or the difference of two mesh currents on a shared branch.

Superposition: in a linear circuit, any voltage or current is the sum of the responses to each independent source acting alone. To switch a source off, replace an ideal voltage source with a short circuit and an ideal current source with an open circuit. Resistors stay where they are.

Superposition: in a linear circuit, any voltage or current is the sum of the responses to each independent source acting alone. To switch a source off, replace an ideal voltage source with a short circuit and an ideal current source with an open circuit. Resistors stay where they are.

Thévenin’s theorem: any linear two-terminal network behaves like a single voltage source V_th in series with a resistance R_th. Norton’s theorem gives the same network as a current source I_N = V_th/R_th in parallel with R_th.

Thévenin’s theorem: any linear two-terminal network behaves like a single voltage source V_th in series with a resistance R_th. Norton’s theorem gives the same network as a current source I_N = V_th/R_th in parallel with R_th.

First-order transients: in a circuit with one capacitor or one inductor, every voltage and current moves exponentially from its initial value to its final value: x(t) = x(∞) + [x(0) − x(∞)]·e^−t/τ, with τ = RC or τ = L/R. After about 5τ the circuit has settled.

First-order transients: in a circuit with one capacitor or one inductor, every voltage and current moves exponentially from its initial value to its final value: x(t) = x(∞) + [x(0) − x(∞)]·e^−t/τ, with τ = RC or τ = L/R. After about 5τ the circuit has settled.

AC circuits with phasors: resistors, inductors and capacitors have impedances R, jωL and 1/(jωC), with ω = 2πf. In series, impedances add like resistances, but as complex numbers. Rms current and voltage follow Ohm’s law with |Z|.

AC circuits with phasors: resistors, inductors and capacitors have impedances R, jωL and 1/(jωC), with ω = 2πf. In series, impedances add like resistances, but as complex numbers. Rms current and voltage follow Ohm’s law with |Z|.

AC power: apparent power S = V·I (VA) splits into real power P = S·cos φ (W), which does useful work, and reactive power Q = S·sin φ (var), which moves back and forth between source and load. The power factor is cos φ. A capacitor in parallel supplies reactive power locally, so the line current drops for the same real power.

AC power: apparent power S = V·I (VA) splits into real power P = S·cos φ (W), which does useful work, and reactive power Q = S·sin φ (var), which moves back and forth between source and load. The power factor is cos φ. A capacitor in parallel supplies reactive power locally, so the line current drops for the same real power.

Balanced three-phase systems: in a Y (star) connection the line-to-line voltage is √3 times the phase voltage, V_L = √3·V_ph, and the line current equals the phase current. In a Δ (delta) connection the line-to-line voltage equals the phase voltage and the line current is √3 times the phase current, I_L = √3·I_ph. The total power is three times the power of one phase: P = 3·V_ph·I_ph·cos φ = √3·V_L·I_L·cos φ.

Balanced three-phase systems: in a Y (star) connection the line-to-line voltage is √3 times the phase voltage, V_L = √3·V_ph, and the line current equals the phase current. In a Δ (delta) connection the line-to-line voltage equals the phase voltage and the line current is √3 times the phase current, I_L = √3·I_ph. The total power is three times the power of one phase: P = 3·V_ph·I_ph·cos φ = √3·V_L·I_L·cos φ. Power factor correction: capacitors supply reactive power locally, Q_C = P·(tan φ₁ − tan φ₂). Each of the three capacitors supplies Q_C/3 = V²·ω·C, where V is the voltage across that capacitor: V_L in a Δ bank, V_L/√3 in a Y bank.

Ideal transformer: the voltages are in the ratio of the turns and the currents in the inverse ratio: V₁/V₂ = N₁/N₂ = a and I₁/I₂ = N₂/N₁ = 1/a, so the power in equals the power out, V₁·I₁ = V₂·I₂. A load impedance Z on the secondary looks like a²·Z from the primary.

Transformer losses: the core loss (hysteresis and eddy currents) depends on the voltage and is the same at any load. The copper loss in the windings goes with the current squared, so at a fraction x of rated load it is x²·P_cu,fl. Efficiency η = P_out/(P_out + P_core + P_cu), with P_out = x·S·pf. The efficiency is highest at the load where the copper loss equals the core loss.

Ideal op-amp rules: with negative feedback, the op-amp drives its output so that its two inputs sit at the same voltage (V₋ = V₊), and no current flows into either input. Writing KCL at the inverting input with these two facts gives the output.

Ideal op-amp rules: with negative feedback, the op-amp drives its output so that its two inputs sit at the same voltage (V₋ = V₊), and no current flows into either input. Writing KCL at the inverting input with these two facts gives the output.

LED and diode circuits: a forward-biased LED drops roughly its forward voltage V_F (about 2 V for red, 3 V for blue or white), whatever the current. A series resistor sets the current: R = (V_s − n·V_F)/I for n LEDs in series. With a more exact diode model V = V₀ + I·r_d, the operating point is where the diode line meets the load line I = (V_s − V)/R, so I = (V_s − V₀)/(R + r_d).

Zener regulator: a reverse-biased Zener diode holds its voltage V_Z while its current stays above a minimum I_Z,min. The series resistor R takes the difference between input and output: I_R = (V_in − V_Z)/R. That current splits between the load, I_L = V_Z/R_L, and the Zener: I_Z = I_R − I_L. Design for the worst cases: the lowest input with the largest load must still leave I_Z,min, and the highest input with no load gives the largest Zener power P_Z = V_Z·I_Z.

Setting bits: each bit is worth a power of two (128, 64, …, 1). One hex digit is exactly four bits, and in 8-bit two's complement the leftmost bit is worth −128. Bitwise operations work on each bit position separately.

Positional number systems: each digit is worth its value times a power of the base. In binary the places are worth 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, …; in hexadecimal 1, 16, 256, …, with A–F standing for 10–15. In 8-bit two's complement the leftmost bit is worth −128 instead of +128, which is how negative numbers are stored.

Karnaugh maps: the cells are ordered in Gray code (00, 01, 11, 10), so neighbouring cells, including the ones across the edges, differ in exactly one variable. Group the 1s in rectangles of 1, 2, 4, 8 or 16 cells, as large as possible and as few as possible, until every 1 is covered. Each group is one product term: the variables that stay constant inside it. A group of 2ᵏ cells loses k variables. Don't-cares (X) may be used to make groups bigger but never have to be covered. Grouping the 0s instead gives the minimal POS form.

Flip-flops and counters: a flip-flop changes only at the active clock edge. D copies its input (Q⁺ = D); T toggles when T = 1; JK holds for 00, resets for 01, sets for 10 and toggles for 11. An n-bit binary counter has 2ⁿ states and counts modulo 2ⁿ; a mod-N counter goes 0, 1, …, N − 1 and back to 0, and needs the smallest n with 2ⁿ ≥ N flip-flops. Each stage of a ripple counter halves the frequency, so the last output of a mod-N counter runs at f_clk/N. A Johnson counter of n flip-flops has 2n states, a ring counter n.

Laplace transform: F(s) = ∫₀^∞ f(t)·e^−st dt turns derivatives into multiplications by s: ℒ{f′} = sF(s) − f(0), ℒ{f″} = s²F(s) − s·f(0) − f′(0). Standard pairs: 1 ↔ 1/s, e^−at ↔ 1/(s + a), t·e^−at ↔ 1/(s + a)², sin ωt ↔ ω/(s² + ω²), cos ωt ↔ s/(s² + ω²), and a shift s → s + σ multiplies the time function by e^−σt. To invert a rational F(s), split it into partial fractions: the residue of a simple pole p is A = [(s − p)·F(s)] at s = p. Final value theorem: f(∞) = lim_s→0 s·F(s), valid only when all poles of s·F(s) lie in the left half-plane. Initial value theorem: f(0⁺) = lim_s→∞ s·F(s).

Laplace transform: F(s) = ∫₀^∞ f(t)·e^−st dt turns derivatives into multiplications by s: ℒ{f′} = sF(s) − f(0), ℒ{f″} = s²F(s) − s·f(0) − f′(0). Standard pairs: 1 ↔ 1/s, e^−at ↔ 1/(s + a), t·e^−at ↔ 1/(s + a)², sin ωt ↔ ω/(s² + ω²), cos ωt ↔ s/(s² + ω²), and a shift s → s + σ multiplies the time function by e^−σt. To invert a rational F(s), split it into partial fractions: the residue of a simple pole p is A = [(s − p)·F(s)] at s = p. Final value theorem: f(∞) = lim_s→0 s·F(s), valid only when all poles of s·F(s) lie in the left half-plane. Initial value theorem: f(0⁺) = lim_s→∞ s·F(s).

Block-diagram algebra: blocks in series multiply (G₁·G₂), blocks in parallel add (G₁ + G₂), and a loop with forward path G and feedback path H reduces to T = G/(1 + G·H) for negative feedback and G/(1 − G·H) for positive feedback. Reduce inner loops first, then work outwards. The closed-loop poles are the roots of the characteristic equation 1 + G(s)H(s) = 0. For a stable loop, a step input of size A gives the steady-state output A·T(0); with unity feedback the steady-state error to a step is A/(1 + K_p) with K_p = G(0).

Block-diagram algebra: blocks in series multiply (G₁·G₂), blocks in parallel add (G₁ + G₂), and a loop with forward path G and feedback path H reduces to T = G/(1 + G·H) for negative feedback and G/(1 − G·H) for positive feedback. Reduce inner loops first, then work outwards. The closed-loop poles are the roots of the characteristic equation 1 + G(s)H(s) = 0. For a stable loop, a step input of size A gives the steady-state output A·T(0); with unity feedback the steady-state error to a step is A/(1 + K_p) with K_p = G(0).

Step response: a first-order system G(s) = K/(τs + 1) answers a step of size U with y(t) = K·U·(1 − e^−t/τ): it reaches 63.2 % of the final value K·U after one time constant τ and 98 % after 4τ. A second-order system G(s) = K·ωₙ²/(s² + 2ζωₙs + ωₙ²) has the poles s = −ζωₙ ± jω_d with ω_d = ωₙ√(1 − ζ²). For 0 < ζ < 1 the step response overshoots: percent overshoot %OS = 100·e^{−ζπ/√(1−ζ²)}, peak time t_p = π/ω_d, and the 2 % settling time t_s ≈ 4/(ζωₙ). Compare the denominator with s² + 2ζωₙs + ωₙ² to read off ωₙ and ζ. For a mass–spring–damper ωₙ = √(k/m) and ζ = c/(2√(km)); for a series RLC circuit ωₙ = 1/√(LC) and ζ = (R/2)·√(C/L).

Step response: a first-order system G(s) = K/(τs + 1) answers a step of size U with y(t) = K·U·(1 − e^−t/τ): it reaches 63.2 % of the final value K·U after one time constant τ and 98 % after 4τ. A second-order system G(s) = K·ωₙ²/(s² + 2ζωₙs + ωₙ²) has the poles s = −ζωₙ ± jω_d with ω_d = ωₙ√(1 − ζ²). For 0 < ζ < 1 the step response overshoots: percent overshoot %OS = 100·e^{−ζπ/√(1−ζ²)}, peak time t_p = π/ω_d, and the 2 % settling time t_s ≈ 4/(ζωₙ). Compare the denominator with s² + 2ζωₙs + ωₙ² to read off ωₙ and ζ. For a mass–spring–damper ωₙ = √(k/m) and ζ = c/(2√(km)); for a series RLC circuit ωₙ = 1/√(LC) and ζ = (R/2)·√(C/L).

Frequency response: substitute s = jω in the transfer function. The magnitude in decibels is 20·log₁₀|H(jω)| and the phase is the sum of the angles of the numerator factors minus those of the denominator factors. A first-order RC or RL filter has its corner (−3 dB) frequency at ω_c = 1/(RC) or R/L, and f_c = ω_c/(2π); a low-pass filter gives |H| = 1/√(1 + (ω/ω_c)²) and φ = −atan(ω/ω_c). In the asymptotic (straight-line) Bode plot each pole bends the magnitude down by 20 dB/decade at its corner frequency, each zero bends it up by 20 dB/decade, and an integrator 1/s gives −20 dB/decade at all frequencies. Gain crossover ω_c: |L(jω)| = 1 (0 dB); phase margin PM = 180° + ∠L(jω_c). Phase crossover ω₁₈₀: ∠L(jω) = −180°; gain margin GM = −20·log₁₀|L(jω₁₈₀)| dB. The closed loop is stable when both margins are positive.

Frequency response: substitute s = jω in the transfer function. The magnitude in decibels is 20·log₁₀|H(jω)| and the phase is the sum of the angles of the numerator factors minus those of the denominator factors. A first-order RC or RL filter has its corner (−3 dB) frequency at ω_c = 1/(RC) or R/L, and f_c = ω_c/(2π); a low-pass filter gives |H| = 1/√(1 + (ω/ω_c)²) and φ = −atan(ω/ω_c). In the asymptotic (straight-line) Bode plot each pole bends the magnitude down by 20 dB/decade at its corner frequency, each zero bends it up by 20 dB/decade, and an integrator 1/s gives −20 dB/decade at all frequencies. Gain crossover ω_c: |L(jω)| = 1 (0 dB); phase margin PM = 180° + ∠L(jω_c). Phase crossover ω₁₈₀: ∠L(jω) = −180°; gain margin GM = −20·log₁₀|L(jω₁₈₀)| dB. The closed loop is stable when both margins are positive.

Routh–Hurwitz criterion: a linear system is stable when every root of its characteristic polynomial lies in the left half of the s-plane. Write the coefficients alternately into the first two rows of the Routh array. Each entry of a new row comes from the two rows above it; for a cubic a₃s³ + a₂s² + a₁s + a₀ the s¹ entry is b₁ = (a₂·a₁ − a₃·a₀)/a₂. The number of sign changes in the first column equals the number of roots in the right half-plane. With a gain K in the coefficients, every first-column entry must stay positive: the gain that makes the s¹ entry zero is the stability limit, and the s² row then gives the frequency of the sustained oscillation.

Root locus: as the gain K goes from 0 to ∞, the closed-loop poles, the roots of 1 + K·G(s) = 0, move from the open-loop poles to the open-loop zeros or to infinity. A point on the real axis belongs to the locus when the number of real poles and zeros to its right is odd. The n − m branches that go to infinity follow asymptotes at the angles (2q + 1)·180°/(n − m), which start from the centroid σₐ = (Σ poles − Σ zeros)/(n − m). Branches leave or join the real axis where dK/ds = 0. The angle condition ∠G(s) = 180° fixes the shape, and the magnitude condition K = 1/|G(s)| gives the gain at any point of the locus.

Steady-state error: in a unity-feedback loop with open-loop transfer function G(s) the error is E(s) = R(s)/(1 + G(s)), and by the final value theorem e_ss = lim_s→0 s·E(s). The system type is the number of poles of G(s) at s = 0. The error constants are K_p = lim G(s), K_v = lim s·G(s) and K_a = lim s²·G(s), all for s → 0. A step of size A gives e_ss = A/(1 + K_p), a ramp A·t gives A/K_v and a parabola A·t²/2 gives A/K_a. A type-0 loop follows a step with a finite error, a type-1 loop follows it exactly and a ramp with a finite error.

P, PI and PID control: the controller C(s) = K_p + K_i/s + K_d·s acts on the error. A proportional gain makes the loop faster and reduces the error of a type-0 plant, but never removes it. The integral term adds a pole at s = 0: the system type rises by one, and a step is followed without error. The derivative term adds damping. To choose gains, write the closed-loop characteristic polynomial and compare it with s² + 2ζω_ns + ω_n². Then %OS = 100·e^{−ζπ/√(1−ζ²)}, t_p = π/ω_d with ω_d = ω_n√(1 − ζ²), and t_s ≈ 4/(ζω_n).