FE Mechanical exam practice: cram pack

Cantilever equilibrium: a fixed support can push up and also resist rotation, so it gives a vertical reaction R_A and a reaction moment M_A. ΣF_y = 0 gives R_A, and moments about the wall give M_A = Σ(load × distance from the wall). A distributed load acts as its resultant at the centroid of the load diagram.

Static equilibrium: a body at rest has ΣF_x = 0, ΣF_y = 0 and ΣM = 0 about any point. Replace each distributed load by its resultant (its area) acting at the centroid of the load diagram, and take moments about a support to remove that support’s reaction from the equation.

Hooke’s law: within the elastic range σ = E·ε. Combining with σ = P/A and ε = δ/L gives δ = PL/(AE).

Two materials: in series (one after the other) every segment carries the same force and the elongations add: δ = P·Σ L/(E·A). In parallel (side by side between rigid plates) both parts shorten by the same amount, so their strains are equal: the stiffer part takes the larger share, P_i = P·E_iA_i/ΣEA, and σ_i = E_i·ε. A bar held between two rigid walls with a load at the junction is statically indeterminate: the two segments share the load in proportion to their stiffness k = EA/L.

Torsion of circular shafts: shear stress grows linearly from zero at the centre to τ_max = T·r/J at the surface, with J = πd⁴/32 for a solid shaft and J = π(d_o⁴ − d_i⁴)/32 for a hollow one. The angle of twist is φ = TL/(GJ) in radians. Power and torque are linked by P = T·ω.

Torsion of circular shafts: shear stress grows linearly from zero at the centre to τ_max = T·r/J at the surface, with J = πd⁴/32 for a solid shaft and J = π(d_o⁴ − d_i⁴)/32 for a hollow one. The angle of twist is φ = TL/(GJ) in radians. Power and torque are linked by P = T·ω.

Method of sections: cut the beam where you want the internal forces and keep one side. The shear force V balances the vertical forces on that side, and the bending moment M balances their moments about the cut.

Largest bending moment: M changes slope wherever the shear force changes, so its peaks sit where the shear force crosses zero: under a point load, inside a distributed load, or over a support of an overhang. At a fixed support of a cantilever the moment is largest at the wall. Compare the size of M at those places, sagging or hogging.

Plane stress transformation: on a plane rotated by θ, σ = (σₓ + σᵧ)/2 + (σₓ − σᵧ)/2·cos 2θ + τₓᵧ·sin 2θ. Mohr’s circle shows all planes at once: its centre is at C = (σₓ + σᵧ)/2 and its radius is R = √(((σₓ − σᵧ)/2)² + τₓᵧ²). The principal stresses are C ± R, and the largest in-plane shear stress is R. In three dimensions the absolute maximum shear stress is (σ_max − σ_min)/2 over all three principal stresses; in plane stress the third one is zero.

Plane stress transformation: on a plane rotated by θ, σ = (σₓ + σᵧ)/2 + (σₓ − σᵧ)/2·cos 2θ + τₓᵧ·sin 2θ. Mohr’s circle shows all planes at once: its centre is at C = (σₓ + σᵧ)/2 and its radius is R = √(((σₓ − σᵧ)/2)² + τₓᵧ²). The principal stresses are C ± R, and the largest in-plane shear stress is R.

Beam deflection: deflections come from integrating the curvature M/(EI) twice. Standard cases are tabulated, for example PL³/(3EI) for a cantilever with an end load and 5wL⁴/(384EI) for a simply supported beam under a full uniform load. Deflections from separate loads add (superposition).

Beam deflection: deflections come from integrating the curvature M/(EI) twice. Standard cases are tabulated, for example PL³/(3EI) for a cantilever with an end load and 5wL⁴/(384EI) for a simply supported beam under a full uniform load. Deflections from separate loads add (superposition).

Euler buckling: a slender column becomes unstable at P_cr = π²EI/(KL)², where KL is the effective length: K = 1 for pinned–pinned, 2 for fixed–free, 0.7 for fixed–pinned and 0.5 for fixed–fixed. It buckles about the axis with the smallest I. The formula holds for slender columns, whose critical stress stays below the yield stress.

Euler buckling: a slender column becomes unstable at P_cr = π²EI/(KL)², where KL is the effective length: K = 1 for pinned–pinned, 2 for fixed–free, 0.7 for fixed–pinned and 0.5 for fixed–fixed. It buckles about the axis with the smallest I. The formula holds for slender columns, whose critical stress stays below the yield stress.

Projectile motion: with no air resistance, x = v_xt and y = h + v_yt − ½gt². The two directions are independent except that they share the same time.

Projectile motion: with no air resistance, x = v_xt and y = h + v_yt − ½gt². The two directions are independent except that they share the same time.

Work–energy principle: the change in kinetic energy equals the work done by all forces. Writing gravity and springs as potential energy (mgh and ½kx²) turns this into a balance: initial energy = final energy + energy lost to friction (μN·d).

Work–energy principle: the change in kinetic energy equals the work done by all forces. Writing gravity and springs as potential energy (mgh and ½kx²) turns this into a balance: initial energy = final energy + energy lost to friction (μN·d).

Free vibration of a mass–spring system: the undamped natural frequency is ω_n = √(k/m) in rad/s, and f_n = ω_n/(2π) in Hz. A viscous damper c gives the damping ratio ζ = c/c_c, with critical damping c_c = 2·√(k·m) = 2·m·ω_n. An underdamped system (ζ < 1) oscillates at ω_d = ω_n·√(1 − ζ²). Springs in parallel add, k = k₁ + k₂; springs in series add as reciprocals, 1/k = 1/k₁ + 1/k₂.

Free vibration of a mass–spring system: the undamped natural frequency is ω_n = √(k/m) in rad/s, and f_n = ω_n/(2π) in Hz. A viscous damper c gives the damping ratio ζ = c/c_c, with critical damping c_c = 2·√(k·m) = 2·m·ω_n. An underdamped system (ζ < 1) oscillates at ω_d = ω_n·√(1 − ζ²). Springs in parallel add, k = k₁ + k₂; springs in series add as reciprocals, 1/k = 1/k₁ + 1/k₂.

Second-law limits: no cycle working between reservoirs at absolute temperatures T_H and T_L can beat the reversible (Carnot) cycle: η_max = 1 − T_L/T_H, COP_R,max = T_L/(T_H − T_L) and COP_HP,max = T_H/(T_H − T_L). Energy is always conserved: Q_H = W + Q_L.

Second-law limits: no cycle working between reservoirs at absolute temperatures T_H and T_L can beat the reversible (Carnot) cycle: η_max = 1 − T_L/T_H, COP_R,max = T_L/(T_H − T_L) and COP_HP,max = T_H/(T_H − T_L). Energy is always conserved: Q_H = W + Q_L.

Diesel cycle (compression-ignition engine): 1→2 isentropic compression, 2→3 heat addition at constant pressure, 3→4 isentropic expansion, 4→1 heat rejection at constant volume. With compression ratio r = v₁/v₂ and cutoff ratio r_c = v₃/v₂: T₂ = T₁·r^k−1, T₃ = r_c·T₂, q_in = c_p·(T₃ − T₂) and η = 1 − (1/r^k−1)·(r_c^k − 1)/(k·(r_c − 1)).

Brayton cycle (gas turbine): 1→2 isentropic compression, 2→3 heat addition at constant pressure, 3→4 isentropic expansion in the turbine, 4→1 heat rejection at constant pressure. With pressure ratio r_p = P₂/P₁: T₂ = T₁·r_p^(k−1)/k, T₄ = T₃/r_p^(k−1)/k and η = 1 − 1/r_p^(k−1)/k. Net work w = c_p·[(T₃ − T₄) − (T₂ − T₁)]. With isentropic efficiencies, the compressor needs w_s/η_c and the turbine gives η_t·w_s.

Continuity and Bernoulli: for an incompressible fluid the flow rate is the same at every section, Q = A₁v₁ = A₂v₂. Along a streamline without losses, p + ½ρv² + ρgz is constant, so where the fluid is faster or higher its pressure is lower.

Continuity and Bernoulli: for an incompressible fluid the flow rate is the same at every section, Q = A₁v₁ = A₂v₂. Along a streamline without losses, p + ½ρv² + ρgz is constant, so where the fluid is faster or higher its pressure is lower.

Pipe flow: the Reynolds number Re = V·D/ν = ρ·V·D/μ tells laminar flow (Re below about 2000) from turbulent flow (above about 4000). Friction along a pipe costs the Darcy–Weisbach head loss h_f = f·(L/D)·V²/(2g). Fittings, valves, the entrance and the exit add minor losses h_m = ΣK·V²/(2g). Between two open reservoir surfaces the energy equation gives Δz = h_f + h_m, with the exit loss K = 1 included.

Pipe flow: the Reynolds number Re = V·D/ν = ρ·V·D/μ tells laminar flow (Re below about 2000) from turbulent flow (above about 4000). Friction along a pipe costs the Darcy–Weisbach head loss h_f = f·(L/D)·V²/(2g). Fittings, valves, the entrance and the exit add minor losses h_m = ΣK·V²/(2g). Between two open reservoir surfaces the energy equation gives Δz = h_f + h_m, with the exit loss K = 1 included.

Pump power: the power given to the water is the hydraulic power P_h = ρ·g·Q·H = Q·Δp. The shaft must deliver more because the pump loses some: P_shaft = P_h/η_pump, and the motor draws P_el = P_shaft/η_motor. The pump head H follows from the energy equation: static lift + pressure head + all friction and minor losses.

Pump power: the power given to the water is the hydraulic power P_h = ρ·g·Q·H = Q·Δp. The shaft must deliver more because the pump loses some: P_shaft = P_h/η_pump, and the motor draws P_el = P_shaft/η_motor. The pump head H follows from the energy equation: static lift + pressure head + all friction and minor losses.

Thermal resistance: steady heat flow through layers in series behaves like current through resistors in series: Q̇ = ΔT/ΣR, with R = L/(kA) for a conducting layer and R = 1/(hA) for a convecting surface. The temperature drop across each layer is proportional to its resistance.

Thermal resistance: steady heat flow through layers in series behaves like current through resistors in series: Q̇ = ΔT/ΣR, with R = L/(kA) for a conducting layer and R = 1/(hA) for a convecting surface. The temperature drop across each layer is proportional to its resistance.

Belt drives: without slip, both pulleys have the same rim speed v = π·d·n/60, so n₁·d₁ = n₂·d₂ and the speed ratio is d₂/d₁. Slip s makes the driven pulley a little slower: n₂ = n₁·(d₁/d₂)·(1 − s). The power transmitted is P = (T₁ − T₂)·v, with T₁ the tension on the tight side and T₂ on the slack side. Friction limits the ratio of the tensions: T₁/T₂ = e^μθ, where θ is the angle of wrap in radians on the smaller pulley; for an open belt θ = π − 2·asin((d₂ − d₁)/(2C)) with centre distance C.

Belt drives: without slip, both pulleys have the same rim speed v = π·d·n/60, so n₁·d₁ = n₂·d₂ and the speed ratio is d₂/d₁. Slip s makes the driven pulley a little slower: n₂ = n₁·(d₁/d₂)·(1 − s). The power transmitted is P = (T₁ − T₂)·v, with T₁ the tension on the tight side and T₂ on the slack side. Friction limits the ratio of the tensions: T₁/T₂ = e^μθ, where θ is the angle of wrap in radians on the smaller pulley; for an open belt θ = π − 2·asin((d₂ − d₁)/(2C)) with centre distance C.

Laplace transform: F(s) = ∫₀^∞ f(t)·e^−st dt turns derivatives into multiplications by s: ℒ{f′} = sF(s) − f(0), ℒ{f″} = s²F(s) − s·f(0) − f′(0). Standard pairs: 1 ↔ 1/s, e^−at ↔ 1/(s + a), t·e^−at ↔ 1/(s + a)², sin ωt ↔ ω/(s² + ω²), cos ωt ↔ s/(s² + ω²), and a shift s → s + σ multiplies the time function by e^−σt. To invert a rational F(s), split it into partial fractions: the residue of a simple pole p is A = [(s − p)·F(s)] at s = p. Final value theorem: f(∞) = lim_s→0 s·F(s), valid only when all poles of s·F(s) lie in the left half-plane. Initial value theorem: f(0⁺) = lim_s→∞ s·F(s).

Laplace transform: F(s) = ∫₀^∞ f(t)·e^−st dt turns derivatives into multiplications by s: ℒ{f′} = sF(s) − f(0), ℒ{f″} = s²F(s) − s·f(0) − f′(0). Standard pairs: 1 ↔ 1/s, e^−at ↔ 1/(s + a), t·e^−at ↔ 1/(s + a)², sin ωt ↔ ω/(s² + ω²), cos ωt ↔ s/(s² + ω²), and a shift s → s + σ multiplies the time function by e^−σt. To invert a rational F(s), split it into partial fractions: the residue of a simple pole p is A = [(s − p)·F(s)] at s = p. Final value theorem: f(∞) = lim_s→0 s·F(s), valid only when all poles of s·F(s) lie in the left half-plane. Initial value theorem: f(0⁺) = lim_s→∞ s·F(s).

Block-diagram algebra: blocks in series multiply (G₁·G₂), blocks in parallel add (G₁ + G₂), and a loop with forward path G and feedback path H reduces to T = G/(1 + G·H) for negative feedback and G/(1 − G·H) for positive feedback. Reduce inner loops first, then work outwards. The closed-loop poles are the roots of the characteristic equation 1 + G(s)H(s) = 0. For a stable loop, a step input of size A gives the steady-state output A·T(0); with unity feedback the steady-state error to a step is A/(1 + K_p) with K_p = G(0).

Block-diagram algebra: blocks in series multiply (G₁·G₂), blocks in parallel add (G₁ + G₂), and a loop with forward path G and feedback path H reduces to T = G/(1 + G·H) for negative feedback and G/(1 − G·H) for positive feedback. Reduce inner loops first, then work outwards. The closed-loop poles are the roots of the characteristic equation 1 + G(s)H(s) = 0. For a stable loop, a step input of size A gives the steady-state output A·T(0); with unity feedback the steady-state error to a step is A/(1 + K_p) with K_p = G(0).

Step response: a first-order system G(s) = K/(τs + 1) answers a step of size U with y(t) = K·U·(1 − e^−t/τ): it reaches 63.2 % of the final value K·U after one time constant τ and 98 % after 4τ. A second-order system G(s) = K·ωₙ²/(s² + 2ζωₙs + ωₙ²) has the poles s = −ζωₙ ± jω_d with ω_d = ωₙ√(1 − ζ²). For 0 < ζ < 1 the step response overshoots: percent overshoot %OS = 100·e^{−ζπ/√(1−ζ²)}, peak time t_p = π/ω_d, and the 2 % settling time t_s ≈ 4/(ζωₙ). Compare the denominator with s² + 2ζωₙs + ωₙ² to read off ωₙ and ζ. For a mass–spring–damper ωₙ = √(k/m) and ζ = c/(2√(km)); for a series RLC circuit ωₙ = 1/√(LC) and ζ = (R/2)·√(C/L).

Step response: a first-order system G(s) = K/(τs + 1) answers a step of size U with y(t) = K·U·(1 − e^−t/τ): it reaches 63.2 % of the final value K·U after one time constant τ and 98 % after 4τ. A second-order system G(s) = K·ωₙ²/(s² + 2ζωₙs + ωₙ²) has the poles s = −ζωₙ ± jω_d with ω_d = ωₙ√(1 − ζ²). For 0 < ζ < 1 the step response overshoots: percent overshoot %OS = 100·e^{−ζπ/√(1−ζ²)}, peak time t_p = π/ω_d, and the 2 % settling time t_s ≈ 4/(ζωₙ). Compare the denominator with s² + 2ζωₙs + ωₙ² to read off ωₙ and ζ. For a mass–spring–damper ωₙ = √(k/m) and ζ = c/(2√(km)); for a series RLC circuit ωₙ = 1/√(LC) and ζ = (R/2)·√(C/L).

Steady-state error: in a unity-feedback loop with open-loop transfer function G(s) the error is E(s) = R(s)/(1 + G(s)), and by the final value theorem e_ss = lim_s→0 s·E(s). The system type is the number of poles of G(s) at s = 0. The error constants are K_p = lim G(s), K_v = lim s·G(s) and K_a = lim s²·G(s), all for s → 0. A step of size A gives e_ss = A/(1 + K_p), a ramp A·t gives A/K_v and a parabola A·t²/2 gives A/K_a. A type-0 loop follows a step with a finite error, a type-1 loop follows it exactly and a ramp with a finite error.

P, PI and PID control: the controller C(s) = K_p + K_i/s + K_d·s acts on the error. A proportional gain makes the loop faster and reduces the error of a type-0 plant, but never removes it. The integral term adds a pole at s = 0: the system type rises by one, and a step is followed without error. The derivative term adds damping. To choose gains, write the closed-loop characteristic polynomial and compare it with s² + 2ζω_ns + ω_n². Then %OS = 100·e^{−ζπ/√(1−ζ²)}, t_p = π/ω_d with ω_d = ω_n√(1 − ζ²), and t_s ≈ 4/(ζω_n).