Hydrostatic force
- Pressure at depth
- p = ρgh
- Force on a vertical wall
- F = ρg·hc·A
- Centre of pressure
- yp = yc + Ic/(ycA)
- Rectangle
- Ic = bH³/12
Fluid Mechanics: cram pack
Formula sheets, the key method steps for every topic and 8 practice problems, with full solutions at the back.
1Formulas and methods
Continuity & Bernoulli
- Continuity
- A1v1 = A2v2
- Bernoulli
- p1 + ½ρv1² + ρgz1 = p2 + ½ρv2² + ρgz2
- Flow rate
- Q = A·v
- Circle area
- A = πd²/4
Pipe friction & head loss
- Reynolds number
- Re = V·D/ν = ρ·V·D/μ
- Flow regime
- laminar below Re ≈ 2000, turbulent above Re ≈ 4000
- Mean velocity
- V = Q/A, A = π·D²/4
- Darcy–Weisbach
- hf = f·(L/D)·V²/(2g)
- Minor losses
- hm = ΣK·V²/(2g)
- Typical K values
- entrance 0.5, exit 1.0, 90° bend ≈ 0.3
- Pressure drop
- Δp = ρ·g·hf
- Two open reservoirs
- Δz = (f·L/D + ΣK)·V²/(2g)
- Free outlet
- H = (1 + f·L/D + ΣK)·V²/(2g)
Pumps & pump power
- Hydraulic power
- Ph = ρ·g·Q·H = Q·Δp
- Shaft power
- Pshaft = Ph/ηpump
- Electrical power
- Pel = Pshaft/ηmotor
- Pump head
- H = Δz + Δp/(ρ·g) + hL
- System losses
- hL = (f·L/D + ΣK)·V²/(2g)
2Practice problems
1.Hydrostatic forceMedium
A vertical rectangular gate 1 m wide sits in the wall of a tank of water, with its top edge 2 m below the surface. Find the resultant hydrostatic force F on the gate.
d = 2 mH = 1 mb = 1 mρ = 1000 kg/m³g = 9.81 m/s²
F = kN
2.Hydrostatic forceHard
A vertical rectangular gate 1 m wide sits in the wall of a tank of water, with its top edge 3 m below the surface. Find the resultant hydrostatic force F on the gate.
d = 3 mH = 2 mb = 1 mρ = 1000 kg/m³g = 9.81 m/s²
F = kN
3.Continuity & BernoulliMedium
Water drains from a large open tank through a sharp-edged orifice with a diameter of 40 mm. The water level is kept 5 m above the orifice and the discharge coefficient is 0.61. Find the flow rate Q. Use g = 9.81 m/s².
d = 40 mmh = 5 mCd = 0.61g = 9.81 m/s²
Q = L/s
4.Continuity & BernoulliHard
Water flows up through a pipe that narrows from 100 mm to 75 mm while rising 2 m. At section 1 the pressure is 230 kPa and the velocity is 2.75 m/s. Ignoring losses, find the pressure p2 at section 2.
d1 = 100 mmd2 = 75 mmp1 = 230 kPav1 = 2.75 m/sΔz = 2 mρ = 1000 kg/m³
p2 = kPa
5.Pipe friction & head lossMedium
Water flows at a mean velocity of 1.6 m/s through a pipe 50 m long with an inside diameter of 200 mm. Use the Darcy friction factor f = 0.015 and g = 9.81 m/s². Find the friction head loss hf.
V = 1.6 m/sL = 50 mD = 200 mmf = 0.015g = 9.81 m/s²
hf = m
6.Pipe friction & head lossHard
A pipe 300 m long with an inside diameter of 250 mm (Darcy friction factor f = 0.022) runs from an open reservoir and discharges as a free jet into the air. The minor losses are a square-edged entrance (K = 0.5), 2 bends (K = 0.3 each) and a valve (K = 10). Use g = 9.81 m/s². How far H must the reservoir surface be above the pipe outlet for a flow rate of 80 L/s?
Q = 80 L/sL = 300 mD = 250 mmf = 0.022Kentrance = 0.5Kbend = 0.3 (×2)Kvalve = 10
H = m
7.Pumps & pump powerMedium
A pump with an efficiency of 60% delivers 150 L/s of water (ρ = 1000 kg/m³) against a head of 36 m. Use g = 9.81 m/s². Find the shaft power Pshaft needed, in kW.
Q = 150 L/sH = 36 mη = 60%g = 9.81 m/s²
Pshaft = kW
8.Pumps & pump powerHard
A pump moves 50 L/s of water (ρ = 1000 kg/m³) from an open lower reservoir to an upper tank whose water surface is 10 m higher. The pipe is 150 m long with an inside diameter of 150 mm and a Darcy friction factor f = 0.025; the minor-loss coefficients add up to ΣK = 3 (entrance and exit included). Use g = 9.81 m/s². The pump efficiency is 80%. Find the shaft power Pshaft in kW.
Q = 50 L/sΔz = 10 mL = 150 mD = 150 mmf = 0.025ΣK = 3η = 80%
Pshaft = kW
3Solutions
1.Hydrostatic force
Answer: F = 24.52 kN
Hydrostatic force on a plane surface: F = ρ·g·yc·A. It acts at the centre of pressure, ycp = yc + Ic/(ycA), which always lies below the centroid.
Centroid depth and area
yc = d + H/2 = 2 + 1/2 = 2.5 m
A = H·b = 1·1 = 1 m²
Resultant force
F = ρ·g·yc·A = 1000·9.81·2.5·1 = 24.52 kN
Answer
F = 24.52 kN
2.Hydrostatic force
Answer: F = 78.48 kN
Hydrostatic force on a plane surface: F = ρ·g·yc·A. It acts at the centre of pressure, ycp = yc + Ic/(ycA), which always lies below the centroid.
Centroid depth and area
yc = d + H/2 = 3 + 2/2 = 4 m
A = H·b = 2·1 = 2 m²
Resultant force
F = ρ·g·yc·A = 1000·9.81·4·2 = 78.48 kN
Answer
F = 78.48 kN
3.Continuity & Bernoulli
Answer: Q = 7.592 L/s
Continuity and Bernoulli: for an incompressible fluid the flow rate is the same at every section, Q = A₁v₁ = A₂v₂. Along a streamline without losses, p + ½ρv² + ρgz is constant, so where the fluid is faster or higher its pressure is lower.
Ideal jet velocity
√(2gh) = √(2·9.81·5) = 9.905 m/s
Actual flow rate
The discharge coefficient accounts for the contraction of the jet and friction at the edge.
Q = Cd·A·√(2gh) = 0.61·0.001257·9.905 = 0.007592 m³/s = 7.592 L/s
Answer
Q = 7.592 L/s
4.Continuity & Bernoulli
Answer: p2 = 202.2 kPa
Continuity and Bernoulli: for an incompressible fluid the flow rate is the same at every section, Q = A₁v₁ = A₂v₂. Along a streamline without losses, p + ½ρv² + ρgz is constant, so where the fluid is faster or higher its pressure is lower.
Continuity and Bernoulli
Work in Pa, then divide by 1000 to get kPa.
v2 = v1·(d1/d2)² = 2.75·(100/75)² = 4.889 m/s
½ρ(v1² − v2²) = ½·1000·(2.75² − 4.889²)/1000 = −8.169 kPa
ρgΔz = 1000·9.81·2/1000 = 19.62 kPa
p2 = p1 + ½ρ(v1² − v2²) − ρgΔz = 230 + (−8.169) − 19.62 = 202.2 kPa
Answer
p2 = 202.2 kPa
5.Pipe friction & head loss
Answer: hf = 0.4893 m
Pipe flow: the Reynolds number Re = V·D/ν = ρ·V·D/μ tells laminar flow (Re below about 2000) from turbulent flow (above about 4000). Friction along a pipe costs the Darcy–Weisbach head loss hf = f·(L/D)·V²/(2g). Fittings, valves, the entrance and the exit add minor losses hm = ΣK·V²/(2g). Between two open reservoir surfaces the energy equation gives Δz = hf + hm, with the exit loss K = 1 included.
Velocity head
V²/(2g) = 1.6²/(2·9.81) = 0.1305 m
Darcy–Weisbach
hf = f·(L/D)·V²/(2g) = 0.015·(50/0.2)·1.6²/(2·9.81) = 0.4893 m
Answer
hf = 0.4893 m
6.Pipe friction & head loss
Answer: H = 5.212 m
Pipe flow: the Reynolds number Re = V·D/ν = ρ·V·D/μ tells laminar flow (Re below about 2000) from turbulent flow (above about 4000). Friction along a pipe costs the Darcy–Weisbach head loss hf = f·(L/D)·V²/(2g). Fittings, valves, the entrance and the exit add minor losses hm = ΣK·V²/(2g). Between two open reservoir surfaces the energy equation gives Δz = hf + hm, with the exit loss K = 1 included.
Velocity
V = Q/A = 0.08/0.04909 = 1.63 m/s
V²/(2g) = 0.1354 m
Loss coefficients
f·L/D = 0.022·300/0.25 = 26.4
ΣK = 0.5 + 2·0.3 + 10 = 11.1
Energy equation
The outlet jet still carries its velocity head; it is not a loss but it has to be supplied.
H = (1 + 26.4 + 11.1)·0.1354 = 5.212 m
Answer
H = 5.212 m
7.Pumps & pump power
Answer: Pshaft = 88.29 kW
Pump power: the power given to the water is the hydraulic power Ph = ρ·g·Q·H = Q·Δp. The shaft must deliver more because the pump loses some: Pshaft = Ph/ηpump, and the motor draws Pel = Pshaft/ηmotor. The pump head H follows from the energy equation: static lift + pressure head + all friction and minor losses.
Hydraulic power
Ph = ρ·g·Q·H = 1000·9.81·0.15·36 = 52.97 kW
Shaft power
Pshaft = Ph/η = 52.97/0.6 = 88.29 kW
Answer
Pshaft = 88.29 kW
8.Pumps & pump power
Answer: Pshaft = 13.14 kW
Pump power: the power given to the water is the hydraulic power Ph = ρ·g·Q·H = Q·Δp. The shaft must deliver more because the pump loses some: Pshaft = Ph/ηpump, and the motor draws Pel = Pshaft/ηmotor. The pump head H follows from the energy equation: static lift + pressure head + all friction and minor losses.
Velocity
V = Q/A = 0.05/0.01767 = 2.829 m/s
V²/(2g) = 0.408 m
Head losses
hL = (f·L/D + ΣK)·V²/(2g) = (25 + 3)·0.408 = 11.42 m
Pump head
H = Δz + hL = 10 + 11.42 = 21.42 m
Shaft power
Pshaft = ρ·g·Q·H/η = 1000·9.81·0.05·21.42/0.8 = 13.14 kW
Answer
Pshaft = 13.14 kW
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