Hydrostatic force
- Pressure at depth
- p = ρgh
- Force on a vertical wall
- F = ρg·hc·A
- Centre of pressure
- yp = yc + Ic/(ycA)
- Rectangle
- Ic = bH³/12
Hydraulic Engineering: cram pack
Formula sheets, the key method steps for every topic and 10 practice problems, with full solutions at the back.
1Formulas and methods
Continuity & Bernoulli
- Continuity
- A1v1 = A2v2
- Bernoulli
- p1 + ½ρv1² + ρgz1 = p2 + ½ρv2² + ρgz2
- Flow rate
- Q = A·v
- Circle area
- A = πd²/4
Pipe friction & head loss
- Reynolds number
- Re = V·D/ν = ρ·V·D/μ
- Flow regime
- laminar below Re ≈ 2000, turbulent above Re ≈ 4000
- Mean velocity
- V = Q/A, A = π·D²/4
- Darcy–Weisbach
- hf = f·(L/D)·V²/(2g)
- Minor losses
- hm = ΣK·V²/(2g)
- Typical K values
- entrance 0.5, exit 1.0, 90° bend ≈ 0.3
- Pressure drop
- Δp = ρ·g·hf
- Two open reservoirs
- Δz = (f·L/D + ΣK)·V²/(2g)
- Free outlet
- H = (1 + f·L/D + ΣK)·V²/(2g)
Pumps & pump power
- Hydraulic power
- Ph = ρ·g·Q·H = Q·Δp
- Shaft power
- Pshaft = Ph/ηpump
- Electrical power
- Pel = Pshaft/ηmotor
- Pump head
- H = Δz + Δp/(ρ·g) + hL
- System losses
- hL = (f·L/D + ΣK)·V²/(2g)
Open-channel flow (Manning)
- Manning equation
- V = (1/n)·R2/3·S1/2
- Flow rate
- Q = A·V
- Hydraulic radius
- R = A/P (P = wetted perimeter, free surface excluded)
- Rectangle
- A = b·y, P = b + 2y
- Trapezoid (side slope z:1)
- A = (b + z·y)·y, P = b + 2y·√(1 + z²)
- Circular pipe, full or half full
- R = D/4
- Required slope
- S = (n·Q/(A·R2/3))²
2Practice problems
1.Hydrostatic forceMedium
A vertical rectangular gate 1 m wide sits in the wall of a tank of water, with its top edge 2.5 m below the surface. Find the resultant hydrostatic force F on the gate.
d = 2.5 mH = 1.5 mb = 1 mρ = 1000 kg/m³g = 9.81 m/s²
F = kN
2.Hydrostatic forceHard
A vertical rectangular gate 1.5 m wide sits in the wall of a tank of oil, with its top edge 1.5 m below the surface. Find the depth ycp of the centre of pressure below the surface.
d = 1.5 mH = 1 mb = 1.5 mρ = 880 kg/m³g = 9.81 m/s²
ycp = m
3.Continuity & BernoulliMedium
Water flows through a horizontal pipe that narrows from 150 mm to 100 mm. In the wide section the pressure is 300 kPa and the velocity is 1.75 m/s. Ignoring losses, find the pressure p2 in the narrow section.
d1 = 150 mmd2 = 100 mmp1 = 300 kPav1 = 1.75 m/sρ = 1000 kg/m³
p2 = kPa
4.Continuity & BernoulliHard
Water flows up through a pipe that narrows from 150 mm to 100 mm while rising 2 m. At section 1 the pressure is 120 kPa and the velocity is 1.25 m/s. Ignoring losses, find the pressure p2 at section 2.
d1 = 150 mmd2 = 100 mmp1 = 120 kPav1 = 1.25 m/sΔz = 2 mρ = 1000 kg/m³
p2 = kPa
5.Pipe friction & head lossMedium
Water (ρ = 1000 kg/m³) flows at 2 m/s through a horizontal pipe, 800 m long, with an inside diameter of 300 mm. Use the Darcy friction factor f = 0.028 and g = 9.81 m/s². Find the pressure drop Δp over the pipe in kPa.
V = 2 m/sL = 800 mD = 300 mmf = 0.028ρ = 1000 kg/m³
Δp = kPa
6.Pipe friction & head lossHard
Two open reservoirs are joined by a pipe 200 m long with an inside diameter of 250 mm and a Darcy friction factor f = 0.018. The water surface of the upper reservoir is 36 m above that of the lower one. The minor losses are a square-edged entrance (K = 0.5), 4 bends (K = 0.3 each), a valve (K = 10) and the exit into the lower reservoir (K = 1.0). Use g = 9.81 m/s². Find the flow rate Q in L/s.
Δz = 36 mL = 200 mD = 250 mmf = 0.018Kentrance = 0.5Kbend = 0.3 (×4)Kvalve = 10Kexit = 1.0
Q = L/s
7.Pumps & pump powerMedium
In a test, a pump delivers 40 L/s of water (ρ = 1000 kg/m³) against a head of 58 m while its shaft takes 26.8 kW. Use g = 9.81 m/s². Find the pump efficiency η in percent.
Q = 40 L/sH = 58 mPshaft = 26.8 kWg = 9.81 m/s²
η = %
8.Pumps & pump powerHard
A pump moves 60 L/s of water (ρ = 1000 kg/m³) from an open lower reservoir to an upper tank whose water surface is 13 m higher. The pipe is 200 m long with an inside diameter of 200 mm and a Darcy friction factor f = 0.015; the minor-loss coefficients add up to ΣK = 6 (entrance and exit included). Use g = 9.81 m/s². The pump efficiency is 70%. Find the shaft power Pshaft in kW.
Q = 60 L/sΔz = 13 mL = 200 mD = 200 mmf = 0.015ΣK = 6η = 70%
Pshaft = kW
9.Open-channel flow (Manning)Medium
A trapezoidal clean earth channel has a bottom width of 2 m and side slopes of 3:1 (horizontal:vertical). Water flows uniformly 1.8 m deep. Manning n = 0.022 and the bed slope is S = 0.002. Find the flow rate Q in m³/s.
b = 2 my = 1.8 mz = 3n = 0.022S = 0.002
Q = m³/s
10.Open-channel flow (Manning)Hard
A concrete sewer with an inside diameter of 300 mm (Manning n = 0.013) must reach a self-cleansing velocity of 1.2 m/s when flowing just full. Find the minimum slope S (in m/m).
D = 300 mmn = 0.013V = 1.2 m/s
S = m/m
3Solutions
1.Hydrostatic force
Answer: F = 47.82 kN
Hydrostatic force on a plane surface: F = ρ·g·yc·A. It acts at the centre of pressure, ycp = yc + Ic/(ycA), which always lies below the centroid.
Centroid depth and area
yc = d + H/2 = 2.5 + 1.5/2 = 3.25 m
A = H·b = 1.5·1 = 1.5 m²
Resultant force
F = ρ·g·yc·A = 1000·9.81·3.25·1.5 = 47.82 kN
Answer
F = 47.82 kN
2.Hydrostatic force
Answer: ycp = 2.042 m
Hydrostatic force on a plane surface: F = ρ·g·yc·A. It acts at the centre of pressure, ycp = yc + Ic/(ycA), which always lies below the centroid.
Centroid depth and area
yc = d + H/2 = 1.5 + 1/2 = 2 m
A = H·b = 1·1.5 = 1.5 m²
Resultant force
F = ρ·g·yc·A = 880·9.81·2·1.5 = 25.9 kN
Centre of pressure
Pressure grows with depth, so the resultant acts below the centroid.
Ic = b·H³/12 = 1.5·1³/12 = 0.125 m⁴
ycp = yc + Ic/(yc·A) = 2 + 0.125/(2·1.5) = 2.042 m
Answer
ycp = 2.042 m
3.Continuity & Bernoulli
Answer: p2 = 293.8 kPa
Continuity and Bernoulli: for an incompressible fluid the flow rate is the same at every section, Q = A₁v₁ = A₂v₂. Along a streamline without losses, p + ½ρv² + ρgz is constant, so where the fluid is faster or higher its pressure is lower.
Continuity and Bernoulli
Work in Pa, then divide by 1000 to get kPa.
v2 = v1·(d1/d2)² = 1.75·(150/100)² = 3.938 m/s
½ρ(v1² − v2²) = ½·1000·(1.75² − 3.938²)/1000 = −6.221 kPa
p2 = p1 + ½ρ(v1² − v2²) = 300 + (−6.221) = 293.8 kPa
Answer
p2 = 293.8 kPa
4.Continuity & Bernoulli
Answer: p2 = 97.21 kPa
Continuity and Bernoulli: for an incompressible fluid the flow rate is the same at every section, Q = A₁v₁ = A₂v₂. Along a streamline without losses, p + ½ρv² + ρgz is constant, so where the fluid is faster or higher its pressure is lower.
Continuity and Bernoulli
Work in Pa, then divide by 1000 to get kPa.
v2 = v1·(d1/d2)² = 1.25·(150/100)² = 2.813 m/s
½ρ(v1² − v2²) = ½·1000·(1.25² − 2.813²)/1000 = −3.174 kPa
ρgΔz = 1000·9.81·2/1000 = 19.62 kPa
p2 = p1 + ½ρ(v1² − v2²) − ρgΔz = 120 + (−3.174) − 19.62 = 97.21 kPa
Answer
p2 = 97.21 kPa
5.Pipe friction & head loss
Answer: Δp = 149.3 kPa
Pipe flow: the Reynolds number Re = V·D/ν = ρ·V·D/μ tells laminar flow (Re below about 2000) from turbulent flow (above about 4000). Friction along a pipe costs the Darcy–Weisbach head loss hf = f·(L/D)·V²/(2g). Fittings, valves, the entrance and the exit add minor losses hm = ΣK·V²/(2g). Between two open reservoir surfaces the energy equation gives Δz = hf + hm, with the exit loss K = 1 included.
Head loss
hf = f·(L/D)·V²/(2g) = 0.028·(800/0.3)·2²/(2·9.81) = 15.22 m
Pressure drop
The pipe is horizontal and the velocity does not change, so the energy equation reduces to Δp = ρ·g·hf.
Δp = ρ·g·hf = 1000·9.81·15.22 = 149333 Pa = 149.3 kPa
Answer
Δp = 149.3 kPa
6.Pipe friction & head loss
Answer: Q = 250.6 L/s
Pipe flow: the Reynolds number Re = V·D/ν = ρ·V·D/μ tells laminar flow (Re below about 2000) from turbulent flow (above about 4000). Friction along a pipe costs the Darcy–Weisbach head loss hf = f·(L/D)·V²/(2g). Fittings, valves, the entrance and the exit add minor losses hm = ΣK·V²/(2g). Between two open reservoir surfaces the energy equation gives Δz = hf + hm, with the exit loss K = 1 included.
Loss coefficients
f·L/D = 0.018·200/0.25 = 14.4
ΣK = 0.5 + 4·0.3 + 10 + 1.0 = 12.7
Energy equation
Both surfaces are open to the air and practically at rest, so all of Δz is lost in the pipe.
36 = (14.4 + 12.7)·V²/(2·9.81)
V = √(2·9.81·36/27.1) = 5.105 m/s
Flow rate
Q = V·π·D²/4 = 5.105·0.04909 = 0.2506 m³/s = 250.6 L/s
Answer
Q = 250.6 L/s
7.Pumps & pump power
Answer: η = 84.92 %
Pump power: the power given to the water is the hydraulic power Ph = ρ·g·Q·H = Q·Δp. The shaft must deliver more because the pump loses some: Pshaft = Ph/ηpump, and the motor draws Pel = Pshaft/ηmotor. The pump head H follows from the energy equation: static lift + pressure head + all friction and minor losses.
Hydraulic power
Ph = ρ·g·Q·H = 1000·9.81·0.04·58 = 22.76 kW
Efficiency
η = Ph/Pshaft = 22.76/26.8 = 84.92%
Answer
η = 84.92%
8.Pumps & pump power
Answer: Pshaft = 14.21 kW
Pump power: the power given to the water is the hydraulic power Ph = ρ·g·Q·H = Q·Δp. The shaft must deliver more because the pump loses some: Pshaft = Ph/ηpump, and the motor draws Pel = Pshaft/ηmotor. The pump head H follows from the energy equation: static lift + pressure head + all friction and minor losses.
Velocity
V = Q/A = 0.06/0.03142 = 1.91 m/s
V²/(2g) = 0.1859 m
Head losses
hL = (f·L/D + ΣK)·V²/(2g) = (15 + 6)·0.1859 = 3.904 m
Pump head
H = Δz + hL = 13 + 3.904 = 16.9 m
Shaft power
Pshaft = ρ·g·Q·H/η = 1000·9.81·0.06·16.9/0.7 = 14.21 kW
Answer
Pshaft = 14.21 kW
9.Open-channel flow (Manning)
Answer: Q = 26.99 m³/s
Manning’s equation (SI): for uniform flow in an open channel V = (1/n)·R2/3·S1/2 and Q = A·V, with n the roughness coefficient, S the bed slope (m/m) and R = A/P the hydraulic radius: flow area divided by wetted perimeter. Only the boundary in contact with the water counts in P, not the free surface. Rectangle: A = b·y, P = b + 2y. Trapezoid with side slopes z:1 (horizontal:vertical): A = (b + z·y)·y, P = b + 2y·√(1 + z²). A circular pipe flowing full or half full has R = D/4.
Geometry
A = (b + z·y)·y = (2 + 3·1.8)·1.8 = 13.32 m²
P = b + 2y·√(1 + z²) = 2 + 2·1.8·√(1 + 3²) = 13.38 m
R = A/P = 0.9952 m
Velocity
V = (1/0.022)·0.99522/3·0.0021/2 = 2.026 m/s
Flow rate
Q = A·V = 13.32·2.026 = 26.99 m³/s
Answer
Q = 26.99 m³/s
10.Open-channel flow (Manning)
Answer: S = 0.007694 m/m
Manning’s equation (SI): for uniform flow in an open channel V = (1/n)·R2/3·S1/2 and Q = A·V, with n the roughness coefficient, S the bed slope (m/m) and R = A/P the hydraulic radius: flow area divided by wetted perimeter. Only the boundary in contact with the water counts in P, not the free surface. Rectangle: A = b·y, P = b + 2y. Trapezoid with side slopes z:1 (horizontal:vertical): A = (b + z·y)·y, P = b + 2y·√(1 + z²). A circular pipe flowing full or half full has R = D/4.
Hydraulic radius
R = D/4 = 0.3/4 = 0.075 m
Solve Manning for S
S = (n·V/R2/3)² = (0.013·1.2/0.1778)² = 0.007694
Answer
S = 0.007694
That is a fall of 7.694 m per kilometre.
ExamProblems · examproblems.com/courses/hydraulic-engineering