Hydrostatic force
- Pressure at depth
- p = ρgh
- Force on a vertical wall
- F = ρg·hc·A
- Centre of pressure
- yp = yc + Ic/(ycA)
- Rectangle
- Ic = bH³/12
Hydraulic Engineering: cram pack
Formula sheets, the key method steps for every topic and 10 practice problems, with full solutions at the back.
1Formulas and methods
Continuity & Bernoulli
- Continuity
- A1v1 = A2v2
- Bernoulli
- p1 + ½ρv1² + ρgz1 = p2 + ½ρv2² + ρgz2
- Flow rate
- Q = A·v
- Circle area
- A = πd²/4
Pipe friction & head loss
- Reynolds number
- Re = V·D/ν = ρ·V·D/μ
- Flow regime
- laminar below Re ≈ 2000, turbulent above Re ≈ 4000
- Mean velocity
- V = Q/A, A = π·D²/4
- Darcy–Weisbach
- hf = f·(L/D)·V²/(2g)
- Minor losses
- hm = ΣK·V²/(2g)
- Typical K values
- entrance 0.5, exit 1.0, 90° bend ≈ 0.3
- Pressure drop
- Δp = ρ·g·hf
- Two open reservoirs
- Δz = (f·L/D + ΣK)·V²/(2g)
- Free outlet
- H = (1 + f·L/D + ΣK)·V²/(2g)
Pumps & pump power
- Hydraulic power
- Ph = ρ·g·Q·H = Q·Δp
- Shaft power
- Pshaft = Ph/ηpump
- Electrical power
- Pel = Pshaft/ηmotor
- Pump head
- H = Δz + Δp/(ρ·g) + hL
- System losses
- hL = (f·L/D + ΣK)·V²/(2g)
Open-channel flow (Manning)
- Manning equation
- V = (1/n)·R2/3·S1/2
- Flow rate
- Q = A·V
- Hydraulic radius
- R = A/P (P = wetted perimeter, free surface excluded)
- Rectangle
- A = b·y, P = b + 2y
- Trapezoid (side slope z:1)
- A = (b + z·y)·y, P = b + 2y·√(1 + z²)
- Circular pipe, full or half full
- R = D/4
- Required slope
- S = (n·Q/(A·R2/3))²
2Practice problems
1.Hydrostatic forceMedium
A vertical rectangular gate 3 m wide sits in the wall of a tank of water, with its top edge 3 m below the surface. Find the resultant hydrostatic force F on the gate.
d = 3 mH = 3 mb = 3 mρ = 1000 kg/m³g = 9.81 m/s²
F = kN
2.Hydrostatic forceHard
A vertical rectangular gate 1 m wide sits in the wall of a tank of glycerin, with its top edge 1 m below the surface. Find the resultant hydrostatic force F on the gate.
d = 1 mH = 1.5 mb = 1 mρ = 1260 kg/m³g = 9.81 m/s²
F = kN
3.Continuity & BernoulliMedium
Water flows at 24 L/s through a horizontal pipe that narrows from 200 mm to 100 mm. The pressure in the narrow section is 80 kPa. Ignoring losses, find the pressure p1 in the wide section.
Q = 24 L/sd1 = 200 mmd2 = 100 mmp2 = 80 kPaρ = 1000 kg/m³
p1 = kPa
4.Continuity & BernoulliHard
Water flows up through a pipe that narrows from 200 mm to 50 mm while rising 8 m. At section 1 the pressure is 230 kPa and the velocity is 0.75 m/s. Ignoring losses, find the pressure p2 at section 2.
d1 = 200 mmd2 = 50 mmp1 = 230 kPav1 = 0.75 m/sΔz = 8 mρ = 1000 kg/m³
p2 = kPa
5.Pipe friction & head lossMedium
Water (ρ = 1000 kg/m³) flows at 2 m/s through a horizontal pipe, 100 m long, with an inside diameter of 200 mm. Use the Darcy friction factor f = 0.022 and g = 9.81 m/s². Find the pressure drop Δp over the pipe in kPa.
V = 2 m/sL = 100 mD = 200 mmf = 0.022ρ = 1000 kg/m³
Δp = kPa
6.Pipe friction & head lossHard
Two open reservoirs are joined by a pipe 200 m long with an inside diameter of 300 mm and a Darcy friction factor f = 0.025. The minor losses are a square-edged entrance (K = 0.5), 4 bends (K = 0.3 each), a valve (K = 0.2) and the exit into the lower reservoir (K = 1.0). Use g = 9.81 m/s². What difference in water level Δz between the reservoirs gives a flow rate of 80 L/s?
Q = 80 L/sL = 200 mD = 300 mmf = 0.025Kentrance = 0.5Kbend = 0.3 (×4)Kvalve = 0.2Kexit = 1.0
Δz = m
7.Pumps & pump powerMedium
In a test, a pump delivers 30 L/s of water (ρ = 1000 kg/m³) against a head of 28 m while its shaft takes 10 kW. Use g = 9.81 m/s². Find the pump efficiency η in percent.
Q = 30 L/sH = 28 mPshaft = 10 kWg = 9.81 m/s²
η = %
8.Pumps & pump powerHard
A pump moves 100 L/s of water (ρ = 1000 kg/m³) from an open lower reservoir to an upper tank whose water surface is 7 m higher. The pipe is 200 m long with an inside diameter of 250 mm and a Darcy friction factor f = 0.015; the minor-loss coefficients add up to ΣK = 5 (entrance and exit included). Use g = 9.81 m/s². Find the head H the pump must add.
Q = 100 L/sΔz = 7 mL = 200 mD = 250 mmf = 0.015ΣK = 5
H = m
9.Open-channel flow (Manning)Medium
A rectangular gravel channel is 3.5 m wide. Water flows uniformly 1.2 m deep. Manning n = 0.025 and the bed slope is S = 0.0015. Find the flow rate Q in m³/s.
b = 3.5 my = 1.2 mn = 0.025S = 0.0015
Q = m³/s
10.Open-channel flow (Manning)Hard
A concrete sewer with an inside diameter of 300 mm (Manning n = 0.013) must reach a self-cleansing velocity of 1.2 m/s when flowing just full. Find the minimum slope S (in m/m).
D = 300 mmn = 0.013V = 1.2 m/s
S = m/m
3Solutions
1.Hydrostatic force
Answer: F = 397.3 kN
Hydrostatic force on a plane surface: F = ρ·g·yc·A. It acts at the centre of pressure, ycp = yc + Ic/(ycA), which always lies below the centroid.
Centroid depth and area
yc = d + H/2 = 3 + 3/2 = 4.5 m
A = H·b = 3·3 = 9 m²
Resultant force
F = ρ·g·yc·A = 1000·9.81·4.5·9 = 397.3 kN
Answer
F = 397.3 kN
2.Hydrostatic force
Answer: F = 32.45 kN
Hydrostatic force on a plane surface: F = ρ·g·yc·A. It acts at the centre of pressure, ycp = yc + Ic/(ycA), which always lies below the centroid.
Centroid depth and area
yc = d + H/2 = 1 + 1.5/2 = 1.75 m
A = H·b = 1.5·1 = 1.5 m²
Resultant force
F = ρ·g·yc·A = 1260·9.81·1.75·1.5 = 32.45 kN
Answer
F = 32.45 kN
3.Continuity & Bernoulli
Answer: p1 = 84.38 kPa
Continuity and Bernoulli: for an incompressible fluid the flow rate is the same at every section, Q = A₁v₁ = A₂v₂. Along a streamline without losses, p + ½ρv² + ρgz is constant, so where the fluid is faster or higher its pressure is lower.
Velocities
v1 = Q/A1 = 0.024/0.03142 = 0.7639 m/s
v2 = Q/A2 = 0.024/0.007854 = 3.056 m/s
Bernoulli
p1 = p2 + ½ρ(v2² − v1²) = 80 + ½·1000·(3.056² − 0.7639²)/1000 = 80 + 4.377 = 84.38 kPa
Answer
p1 = 84.38 kPa
4.Continuity & Bernoulli
Answer: p2 = 79.8 kPa
Continuity and Bernoulli: for an incompressible fluid the flow rate is the same at every section, Q = A₁v₁ = A₂v₂. Along a streamline without losses, p + ½ρv² + ρgz is constant, so where the fluid is faster or higher its pressure is lower.
Continuity and Bernoulli
Work in Pa, then divide by 1000 to get kPa.
v2 = v1·(d1/d2)² = 0.75·(200/50)² = 12 m/s
½ρ(v1² − v2²) = ½·1000·(0.75² − 12²)/1000 = −71.72 kPa
ρgΔz = 1000·9.81·8/1000 = 78.48 kPa
p2 = p1 + ½ρ(v1² − v2²) − ρgΔz = 230 + (−71.72) − 78.48 = 79.8 kPa
Answer
p2 = 79.8 kPa
5.Pipe friction & head loss
Answer: Δp = 22 kPa
Pipe flow: the Reynolds number Re = V·D/ν = ρ·V·D/μ tells laminar flow (Re below about 2000) from turbulent flow (above about 4000). Friction along a pipe costs the Darcy–Weisbach head loss hf = f·(L/D)·V²/(2g). Fittings, valves, the entrance and the exit add minor losses hm = ΣK·V²/(2g). Between two open reservoir surfaces the energy equation gives Δz = hf + hm, with the exit loss K = 1 included.
Head loss
hf = f·(L/D)·V²/(2g) = 0.022·(100/0.2)·2²/(2·9.81) = 2.243 m
Pressure drop
The pipe is horizontal and the velocity does not change, so the energy equation reduces to Δp = ρ·g·hf.
Δp = ρ·g·hf = 1000·9.81·2.243 = 22000 Pa = 22 kPa
Answer
Δp = 22 kPa
6.Pipe friction & head loss
Answer: Δz = 1.277 m
Pipe flow: the Reynolds number Re = V·D/ν = ρ·V·D/μ tells laminar flow (Re below about 2000) from turbulent flow (above about 4000). Friction along a pipe costs the Darcy–Weisbach head loss hf = f·(L/D)·V²/(2g). Fittings, valves, the entrance and the exit add minor losses hm = ΣK·V²/(2g). Between two open reservoir surfaces the energy equation gives Δz = hf + hm, with the exit loss K = 1 included.
Velocity
V = Q/A = 0.08/0.07069 = 1.132 m/s
V²/(2g) = 0.06529 m
Loss coefficients
f·L/D = 0.025·200/0.3 = 16.67
ΣK = 0.5 + 4·0.3 + 0.2 + 1.0 = 2.9
Total head loss
hf = 16.67·0.06529 = 1.088 m
hm = 2.9·0.06529 = 0.1893 m
Δz = hf + hm = 1.277 m
Answer
Δz = 1.277 m
7.Pumps & pump power
Answer: η = 82.4 %
Pump power: the power given to the water is the hydraulic power Ph = ρ·g·Q·H = Q·Δp. The shaft must deliver more because the pump loses some: Pshaft = Ph/ηpump, and the motor draws Pel = Pshaft/ηmotor. The pump head H follows from the energy equation: static lift + pressure head + all friction and minor losses.
Hydraulic power
Ph = ρ·g·Q·H = 1000·9.81·0.03·28 = 8.24 kW
Efficiency
η = Ph/Pshaft = 8.24/10 = 82.4%
Answer
η = 82.4%
8.Pumps & pump power
Answer: H = 10.6 m
Pump power: the power given to the water is the hydraulic power Ph = ρ·g·Q·H = Q·Δp. The shaft must deliver more because the pump loses some: Pshaft = Ph/ηpump, and the motor draws Pel = Pshaft/ηmotor. The pump head H follows from the energy equation: static lift + pressure head + all friction and minor losses.
Velocity
V = Q/A = 0.1/0.04909 = 2.037 m/s
V²/(2g) = 0.2115 m
Head losses
hL = (f·L/D + ΣK)·V²/(2g) = (12 + 5)·0.2115 = 3.596 m
Pump head
Both surfaces are open and practically at rest, so pressure and velocity terms drop out.
H = Δz + hL = 7 + 3.596 = 10.6 m
Answer
H = 10.6 m
9.Open-channel flow (Manning)
Answer: Q = 5.187 m³/s
Manning’s equation (SI): for uniform flow in an open channel V = (1/n)·R2/3·S1/2 and Q = A·V, with n the roughness coefficient, S the bed slope (m/m) and R = A/P the hydraulic radius: flow area divided by wetted perimeter. Only the boundary in contact with the water counts in P, not the free surface. Rectangle: A = b·y, P = b + 2y. Trapezoid with side slopes z:1 (horizontal:vertical): A = (b + z·y)·y, P = b + 2y·√(1 + z²). A circular pipe flowing full or half full has R = D/4.
Geometry
A = b·y = 3.5·1.2 = 4.2 m²
P = b + 2y = 3.5 + 2·1.2 = 5.9 m
R = A/P = 0.7119 m
Velocity
V = (1/0.025)·0.71192/3·0.00151/2 = 1.235 m/s
Flow rate
Q = A·V = 4.2·1.235 = 5.187 m³/s
Answer
Q = 5.187 m³/s
10.Open-channel flow (Manning)
Answer: S = 0.007694 m/m
Manning’s equation (SI): for uniform flow in an open channel V = (1/n)·R2/3·S1/2 and Q = A·V, with n the roughness coefficient, S the bed slope (m/m) and R = A/P the hydraulic radius: flow area divided by wetted perimeter. Only the boundary in contact with the water counts in P, not the free surface. Rectangle: A = b·y, P = b + 2y. Trapezoid with side slopes z:1 (horizontal:vertical): A = (b + z·y)·y, P = b + 2y·√(1 + z²). A circular pipe flowing full or half full has R = D/4.
Hydraulic radius
R = D/4 = 0.3/4 = 0.075 m
Solve Manning for S
S = (n·V/R2/3)² = (0.013·1.2/0.1778)² = 0.007694
Answer
S = 0.007694
That is a fall of 7.694 m per kilometre.
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