Mechanics of Materials: cram pack

Formula sheets, the key method steps for every topic and 14 practice problems, with full solutions at the back.

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1Formulas and methods

Axial stress & strain

Normal stress: σ = F/A
Strain: ε = ΔL/L
Hooke’s law: σ = E·ε
Elongation: ΔL = FL/(EA)
Thermal strain: ε_T = α·ΔT

Torsion of shafts

Shear stress: τ = T·r/J
Solid shaft: J = πd⁴/32
Hollow shaft: J = π(D⁴ − d⁴)/32
Angle of twist: φ = TL/(GJ)
Power: P = T·ω = 2πnT/60

Method

Find the polar moment of area: J = πd⁴/32 for a solid shaft.
Shear stress at the surface: τ = T·r/J, with r the outer radius.
Angle of twist: φ = TL/(GJ) in radians.
If power is given, find the torque first with P = T·ω, ω = 2πn/60.

Shear force & bending moment

Shear and moment: V = ΣF on one side, M = ΣF·d on one side
Bending stress: σ = M·y/I
Rectangle: I = bh³/12
Section modulus: W = I/y_max
Simply supported, uniform load: M_max = wL²/8

Method

Find the support reactions from equilibrium of the whole beam.
Cut the beam at the section you need and keep one side.
Shear force: sum of the vertical forces on that side. Bending moment: sum of their moments about the cut.
For the maximum moment, find where the shear force is zero.

Centroid & second moment of area

Centroid: ȳ = ΣA_iy_i/ΣA_i
Rectangle: I = bh³/12
Parallel-axis theorem: I = I_c + A·d²
Composite section: I = Σ(I_c,i + A_id_i²)

Mohr’s circle & stress transformation

Centre: C = (σ_x + σ_y)/2
Radius: R = √(((σ_x − σ_y)/2)² + τ_xy²)
Principal stresses: σ_1,2 = C ± R
Principal direction: tan 2θ_p = 2τ_xy/(σ_x − σ_y)
Inclined plane: σ_θ = C + (σ_x − σ_y)/2·cos 2θ + τ_xy·sin 2θ

Method

Calculate the centre of Mohr’s circle: C = (σx + σy)/2.
Calculate the radius: R = √(((σx − σy)/2)² + τxy²).
The principal stresses are C ± R and the largest in-plane shear stress is R.
Angles on the circle are double the angles on the element: tan 2θp = 2τxy/(σx − σy).

Beam deflection

Point load at midspan: δ = PL³/(48EI)
Uniform load, simply supported: δ = 5wL⁴/(384EI)
Cantilever, end load: δ = PL³/(3EI)
Cantilever, uniform load: δ = wL⁴/(8EI)
Superposition: δ = δ₁ + δ₂

Column buckling

Euler load: P_cr = π²EI/(KL)²
Effective length factor: K = 1 pinned–pinned, 0.5 fixed–fixed, 0.7 fixed–pinned, 2 fixed–free
Critical stress: σ_cr = P_cr/A
Slenderness: λ = KL/r, r = √(I/A)

2Practice problems

1.Axial stress & strainMedium

A bar is made of a steel segment (diameter 40 mm, length 600 mm, E = 200 GPa) joined end to end with a segment made of brass (diameter 40 mm, length 500 mm, E = 100 GPa). It is fixed at one end and pulled at the other. Find the axial load P that stretches it by 0.3 mm in total.

segment 1: steel, Ø40 mm, 600 mm, E = 200 GPasegment 2: brass, Ø40 mm, 500 mm, E = 100 GPaδ = 0.3 mm

P = kN

2.Axial stress & strainHard

The stepped bar is fixed at the wall and loaded at its free end. Find the total elongation δ.

P = 40 kNsegment 1: Ø25 mm, 0.5 m, brass (E = 100 GPa)segment 2: Ø16 mm, 2 m, aluminium (E = 70 GPa)

δ = mm

3.Torsion of shaftsMedium

A solid steel shaft is fixed at the wall and twisted by a torque T at its free end. Find the angle of twist φ of the free end, in degrees.

T = 750 N·md = 50 mmL = 0.8 mG = 80 GPa

φ = °

4.Torsion of shaftsHard

A hollow shaft transmits 30 kW at 300 rpm. Find the maximum shear stress τ_max in the shaft.

P = 30 kWN = 300 rpmd_o = 50 mmd_i = 25 mm

τ_max = MPa

5.Shear force & bending momentMedium

Find the bending moment M_x at the section x = 1.5 m from support A. Use sagging moments positive and upward shear on the left face positive.

L = 6 mw = 3 kN/m from 0 to 6 mx = 1.5 m

M_x = kN·m

6.Shear force & bending momentHard

The simply supported beam carries a uniformly distributed load over part of its span. Find the maximum bending moment M_max in the beam.

L = 8 mw = 20 kN/m from 2 to 8 m

M_max = kN·m

7.Centroid & second moment of areaMedium

Find the second moment of area I_x of the T-section about the horizontal axis x through its centroid.

b_f = 220 mmt_f = 20 mmt_w = 18 mmh_w = 240 mm

I_x = × 10⁶ mm⁴

8.Centroid & second moment of areaHard

A 200 mm × 200 mm plate has a rectangular cut-out 40 mm wide and 20 mm high, centred on the vertical centre line with its centre 120 mm above the bottom. Find the second moment of area I_x about the horizontal axis through the centroid.

b = 200 mmh = 200 mmcut-out: 40 × 20 mmhole centre: y = 120 mm

I_x = × 10⁶ mm⁴

9.Mohr’s circle & stress transformationMedium

A point has σₓ = 110 MPa, σᵧ = 10 MPa and τₓᵧ = 30 MPa (tension positive). Find the angle θ_s, between −90° and 90°, from the x-axis to the normal of the plane on which the shear stress has its maximum positive value +R (shear positive in the same sense as τₓᵧ).

σ_x = 110 MPaσ_y = 10 MPaτ_xy = 30 MPa

θ_s = °

10.Mohr’s circle & stress transformationHard

A point in a thin plate is in plane stress: σₓ = −10 MPa, σᵧ = −50 MPa and τₓᵧ = 60 MPa (σ_z = 0). Find the von Mises equivalent stress σ_vM.

σ_x = −10 MPaσ_y = −50 MPaτ_xy = 60 MPa

σ_vM = MPa

11.Beam deflectionMedium

A simply supported beam carries a uniformly distributed load w over its whole span. Find the maximum deflection δ_max, at midspan.

w = 15 kN/mL = 2.5 mE = 11 GPa (timber)I = 160 × 10⁶ mm⁴

δ_max = mm

12.Beam deflectionHard

A simply supported timber beam of rectangular section, 150 mm wide, carries a uniformly distributed load w over its whole span. Its midspan deflection may not exceed span/300. Find the smallest depth h_req of the section.

w = 4 kN/mL = 4.5 mE = 11 GPa (timber)b = 150 mm

h_req = mm

13.Column bucklingMedium

A column of length L made of aluminium is fixed at both ends. Using Euler’s formula, find its critical buckling load P_cr.

L = 5 mE = 70 GPa (aluminium)b × h = 25 × 50 mm

P_cr = kN

14.Column bucklingHard

A solid round column of length L made of aluminium is fixed at the base and pinned at the top. It must carry 135 kN with a factor of safety of 2.5 against buckling. Find the smallest diameter d.

P = 135 kNn = 2.5L = 2.5 mE = 70 GPa (aluminium)

d = mm

3Solutions

1.Axial stress & strain

Answer: P = 47.12 kN

Two materials: in series (one after the other) every segment carries the same force and the elongations add: δ = P·Σ L/(E·A). In parallel (side by side between rigid plates) both parts shorten by the same amount, so their strains are equal: the stiffer part takes the larger share, P_i = P·E_iA_i/ΣEA, and σ_i = E_i·ε. A bar held between two rigid walls with a load at the junction is statically indeterminate: the two segments share the load in proportion to their stiffness k = EA/L.

Areas

A₁ = 1257 mm², A₂ = 1257 mm²

Flexibilities

L₁/(E₁A₁) = 600/(200000·1257) = 2.387 × 10⁻⁶ mm/N

L₂/(E₂A₂) = 500/(100000·1257) = 3.979 × 10⁻⁶ mm/N

Load

P = 0.3/6.366 × 10⁻⁶ = 47124 N = 47.12 kN

Answer

P = 47.12 kN

2.Axial stress & strain

Answer: δ = 6.092 mm

Axially loaded members: each prismatic segment obeys δ = PL/(AE). For members in series the elongations add.

Same force in both segments

The free end carries P, so every section of the bar carries the same axial force P. Only the areas and materials change.

A₁ = π·25²/4 = 490.9 mm², A₂ = π·16²/4 = 201.1 mm²

σ₁ = 81.49 MPa

σ₂ = 198.9 MPa

Add the segment elongations

δ₁ = σ₁L₁/E₁ = 81.49·500/100000 = 0.4074 mm

δ₂ = σ₂L₂/E₂ = 198.9·2000/70000 = 5.684 mm

δ = δ₁ + δ₂ = 6.092 mm

Answer

δ = 6.092 mm

3.Torsion of shafts

Answer: φ = 0.7003 °

Torsion of circular shafts: shear stress grows linearly from zero at the centre to τ_max = T·r/J at the surface, with J = πd⁴/32 for a solid shaft and J = π(d_o⁴ − d_i⁴)/32 for a hollow one. The angle of twist is φ = TL/(GJ) in radians. Power and torque are linked by P = T·ω.

Polar second moment of area

J = π·50⁴/32 = 613592 mm⁴

Angle of twist

φ = TL/(GJ) = 750·1000·800/(80000·613592) = 0.01222 rad

φ = 0.01222·180/π = 0.7003°

Answer

φ = 0.7003°

4.Torsion of shafts

Answer: τ_max = 41.5 MPa

Torque

ω = 2πN/60 = 2π·300/60 = 31.42 rad/s

T = P/ω = 30000/31.42 = 954.9 N·m

Polar second moment of area

J = π(50⁴ − 25⁴)/32 = 575243 mm⁴

Maximum shear stress

τ_max = T·(d_o/2)/J = 954930·25/575243 = 41.5 MPa

Answer

τ_max = 41.5 MPa

5.Shear force & bending moment

Answer: M_x = 10.13 kN·m

Support reactions

Equilibrium of the whole beam.

UDL resultant: W = w·ℓ = 3·6 = 18 kN, acting at x̄ = 3 m

ΣM_A = 0: R_B·6 = 3·6·3

R_B = 54/6 = 9 kN

ΣF_y = 0: R_A = 18 − 9 = 9 kN

Cut at x = 1.5 m and keep the left part

Only forces left of the cut appear. A UDL portion acts as one force at the middle of that portion.

M = R_A·x − (each load left of the cut × its distance to the cut)

M_x = 9·1.5 − 3·1.5·0.75 = 10.13 kN·m

Answer

M_x = 10.13 kN·m

6.Shear force & bending moment

Answer: M_max = 140.6 kN·m

Method of sections: cut the beam where you want the internal forces and keep one side. The shear force V balances the vertical forces on that side, and the bending moment M balances their moments about the cut. Maximum moment: since dM/dx = V, the bending moment has its peak where the shear force passes through zero, either at a point load or inside a distributed load.

Support reactions

Equilibrium of the whole beam.

UDL resultant: W = w·ℓ = 20·6 = 120 kN, acting at x̄ = 5 m

ΣM_A = 0: R_B·8 = 20·6·5

R_B = 600/8 = 75 kN

ΣF_y = 0: R_A = 120 − 75 = 45 kN

Zero shear

The shear force starts at R_A, stays constant over any unloaded part and falls with slope w inside the load.

R_A − w·(x₀ − 2) = 0

x₀ = 2 + 45/20 = 4.25 m

Maximum moment

M_max = R_A·x₀ − w·(x₀ − 2)²/2 = 45·4.25 − 20·2.25²/2 = 140.6 kN·m

Answer

M_max = 140.6 kN·m

7.Centroid & second moment of area

Answer: I_x = 57.72 × 10⁶ mm⁴

Composite areas: split the section into rectangles. The centroid is the area-weighted average ȳ = ΣAᵢyᵢ/ΣAᵢ. The second moment of area about the centroidal axis adds each part’s own bh³/12 and its parallel-axis term A·d², where d is the distance from the part’s centroid to the overall centroid. Bending stress is σ = M·y/I.

Split into two rectangles

Measure every y from the bottom edge.

flange: A_f = 220·20 = 4400 mm², y_f = 240 + 20/2 = 250 mm

web: A_w = 18·240 = 4320 mm², y_w = 240/2 = 120 mm

Centroid

ȳ = (A_fy_f + A_wy_w)/(A_f + A_w) = (4400·250 + 4320·120)/8720 = 185.6 mm

Parallel-axis theorem

flange: 220·20³/12 + 4400·(250 − 185.6)² = 1.84 × 10⁷ mm⁴

web: 18·240³/12 + 4320·(120 − 185.6)² = 3.932 × 10⁷ mm⁴

I_x = 1.84 × 10⁷ + 3.932 × 10⁷ = 5.772 × 10⁷ mm⁴ = 57.72 × 10⁶ mm⁴

Answer

I_x = 57.72 × 10⁶ mm⁴

8.Centroid & second moment of area

Answer: I_x = 133 × 10⁶ mm⁴

Sections with holes: treat a hole as a negative area. The centroid is ȳ = (A₁y₁ − A₂y₂)/(A₁ − A₂), with A₁, y₁ for the full plate and A₂, y₂ for the hole. For the second moment of area about the centroidal axis, use the parallel-axis theorem for each part and subtract the hole: I = (I_c1 + A₁d₁²) − (I_c2 + A₂d₂²), where d is the distance from each part's own centroid to the axis through ȳ. A rectangle has I_c = bh³/12 and a circle I_c = πd⁴/64.

Centroid

ȳ = (40000·100 − 800·120)/(40000 − 800) = 99.59 mm

Full plate about ȳ

200·200³/12 + 40000·0.4082² = 133.3 × 10⁶ mm⁴

Hole about ȳ

40·20³/12 + 800·20.41² = 0.3599 × 10⁶ mm⁴

Subtract

I_x = 133 × 10⁶ mm⁴

Answer

I_x = 133 × 10⁶ mm⁴

9.Mohr’s circle & stress transformation

Answer: θ_s = −29.52 °

Angle on the circle

On Mohr’s circle the top point (+R) is 90° from the principal point σ₁; on the element that is 45°.

cos 2θ_s = 30/58.31 = 0.5145, sin 2θ_s = −50/58.31 = −0.8575

2θ_s = atan2(−50, 30) = −59.04°

Angle on the element

θ_s = −29.52°

check: θ_s − θ_p = −29.52 − 15.48 = −45°

Answer

θ_s = −29.52°

Positive angles are counter-clockwise.

10.Mohr’s circle & stress transformation

Answer: σ_vM = 113.6 MPa

Plane stress transformation: on a plane rotated by θ, σ = (σₓ + σᵧ)/2 + (σₓ − σᵧ)/2·cos 2θ + τₓᵧ·sin 2θ. Mohr’s circle shows all planes at once: its centre is at C = (σₓ + σᵧ)/2 and its radius is R = √(((σₓ − σᵧ)/2)² + τₓᵧ²). The principal stresses are C ± R, and the largest in-plane shear stress is R. Yield criteria: von Mises predicts yield when σ_vM = √(σ₁² − σ₁σ₂ + σ₂²) reaches σ_Y; Tresca when the absolute maximum shear stress reaches σ_Y/2.

Principal stresses

C = −30 MPa, R = 63.25 MPa

σ₁ = 33.25 MPa, σ₂ = −93.25 MPa, σ₃ = 0

Von Mises

σ_vM = √(33.25² − 33.25·(−93.25) + (−93.25)²) = 113.6 MPa

Answer

σ_vM = 113.6 MPa

11.Beam deflection

Answer: δ_max = 4.335 mm

Beam deflection: deflections come from integrating the curvature M/(EI) twice. Standard cases are tabulated, for example PL³/(3EI) for a cantilever with an end load and 5wL⁴/(384EI) for a simply supported beam under a full uniform load. Deflections from separate loads add (superposition).

Consistent units

Work in N and mm: P in N, w in N/mm (kN/m = N/mm), L in mm, E in N/mm² (GPa × 1000), I in mm⁴.

w = 15 N/mm, L = 2500 mm

EI = 1.76 × 10¹² N·mm²

Deflection

δ_max = 5wL⁴/(384EI) = 5·15·2500⁴/(384·1.76 × 10¹²) = 4.335 mm

Answer

δ_max = 4.335 mm

12.Beam deflection

Answer: h_req = 218 mm

Consistent units

Work in N and mm: P in N, w in N/mm (kN/m = N/mm), L in mm, E in N/mm² (GPa × 1000), I in mm⁴.

w = 4 N/mm, L = 4500 mm, E = 11000 N/mm²

Deflection limit

δ_allow = L/300 = 4500/300 = 15 mm

Required second moment of area

I_req = 5wL⁴/(384·E·δ_allow) = 5·4·4500⁴/(384·11000·15) = 1.294 × 10⁸ mm⁴

Required depth

bh³/12 = I_req → h = (12·1.294 × 10⁸/150)^1/3 = 218 mm

Answer

h_req = 218 mm

In practice, choose the next standard depth above this value.

13.Column buckling

Answer: P_cr = 7.197 kN

Euler buckling: a slender column becomes unstable at P_cr = π²EI/(KL)², where KL is the effective length: K = 1 for pinned–pinned, 2 for fixed–free, 0.7 for fixed–pinned and 0.5 for fixed–fixed. It buckles about the axis with the smallest I. The formula holds for slender columns, whose critical stress stays below the yield stress.

Smallest second moment of area

A rectangle buckles about its weak axis, using the smaller dimension cubed.

I_min = h·b³/12 = 50·25³/12 = 65104 mm⁴

Effective length

KL = 0.5·5000 = 2500 mm

Critical load

P_cr = π²EI/(KL)² = π²·70000·65104/2500² = 7197 N = 7.197 kN

Answer

P_cr = 7.197 kN

14.Column buckling

Answer: d = 74.3 mm

Required critical load

P_cr = n·P = 2.5·135000 = 337500 N

KL = 0.7·2500 = 1750 mm

Solve for the diameter

d = (64·n·P·(KL)²/(π³E))^(1/4) = (64·337500·1750²/(π³·70000))^(1/4) = 74.3 mm

Answer

d = 74.3 mm

Check: the slenderness KL/r is 94.21, so the column is slender and Euler applies.

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