Mechanics of Materials: cram pack

Formula sheets, the key method steps for every topic and 14 practice problems, with full solutions at the back.

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1Formulas and methods

Axial stress & strain

Normal stress: σ = F/A
Strain: ε = ΔL/L
Hooke’s law: σ = E·ε
Elongation: ΔL = FL/(EA)
Thermal strain: ε_T = α·ΔT

Torsion of shafts

Shear stress: τ = T·r/J
Solid shaft: J = πd⁴/32
Hollow shaft: J = π(D⁴ − d⁴)/32
Angle of twist: φ = TL/(GJ)
Power: P = T·ω = 2πnT/60

Method

Find the polar moment of area: J = πd⁴/32 for a solid shaft.
Shear stress at the surface: τ = T·r/J, with r the outer radius.
Angle of twist: φ = TL/(GJ) in radians.
If power is given, find the torque first with P = T·ω, ω = 2πn/60.

Shear force & bending moment

Shear and moment: V = ΣF on one side, M = ΣF·d on one side
Bending stress: σ = M·y/I
Rectangle: I = bh³/12
Section modulus: W = I/y_max
Simply supported, uniform load: M_max = wL²/8

Method

Find the support reactions from equilibrium of the whole beam.
Cut the beam at the section you need and keep one side.
Shear force: sum of the vertical forces on that side. Bending moment: sum of their moments about the cut.
For the maximum moment, find where the shear force is zero.

Centroid & second moment of area

Centroid: ȳ = ΣA_iy_i/ΣA_i
Rectangle: I = bh³/12
Parallel-axis theorem: I = I_c + A·d²
Composite section: I = Σ(I_c,i + A_id_i²)

Mohr’s circle & stress transformation

Centre: C = (σ_x + σ_y)/2
Radius: R = √(((σ_x − σ_y)/2)² + τ_xy²)
Principal stresses: σ_1,2 = C ± R
Principal direction: tan 2θ_p = 2τ_xy/(σ_x − σ_y)
Inclined plane: σ_θ = C + (σ_x − σ_y)/2·cos 2θ + τ_xy·sin 2θ

Method

Calculate the centre of Mohr’s circle: C = (σx + σy)/2.
Calculate the radius: R = √(((σx − σy)/2)² + τxy²).
The principal stresses are C ± R and the largest in-plane shear stress is R.
Angles on the circle are double the angles on the element: tan 2θp = 2τxy/(σx − σy).

Beam deflection

Point load at midspan: δ = PL³/(48EI)
Uniform load, simply supported: δ = 5wL⁴/(384EI)
Cantilever, end load: δ = PL³/(3EI)
Cantilever, uniform load: δ = wL⁴/(8EI)
Superposition: δ = δ₁ + δ₂

Column buckling

Euler load: P_cr = π²EI/(KL)²
Effective length factor: K = 1 pinned–pinned, 0.5 fixed–fixed, 0.7 fixed–pinned, 2 fixed–free
Critical stress: σ_cr = P_cr/A
Slenderness: λ = KL/r, r = √(I/A)

2Practice problems

1.Axial stress & strainMedium

Find the axial strain ε in the copper bar, in microstrain (µε = 10⁻⁶).

P = 65 kNd = 12 mmL = 1.5 mE = 117 GPa

ε = µε

2.Axial stress & strainHard

The stepped bar is fixed at the wall and loaded at its free end. Find the largest normal stress σ_max in the bar.

P = 110 kNsegment 1: Ø40 mm, 2 m, brass (E = 100 GPa)segment 2: Ø20 mm, 1.5 m, copper (E = 117 GPa)

σ_max = MPa

3.Torsion of shaftsMedium

In a torsion test, a solid specimen of diameter 12 mm is twisted by a torque of 50 N·m. The two ends of a gauge length of 250 mm rotate 4.4° relative to each other (the material is still elastic). Find the shear modulus G of the material.

T = 50 N·md = 12 mmL = 250 mmφ = 4.4°

G = GPa

4.Torsion of shaftsHard

A solid aluminium shaft of diameter 25 mm is fixed to rigid walls at both ends A and B. A torque of 250 N·m is applied at C, 0.8 m from A and 0.5 m from B. Find the reaction torque T_A at wall A.

d = 25 mmT₀ = 250 N·ma = 0.8 mb = 0.5 m

T_A = N·m

5.Shear force & bending momentMedium

Find the bending moment M_x at the section x = 2 m from support A. Use sagging moments positive and upward shear on the left face positive.

L = 6 mw = 5 kN/m from 0 to 6 mx = 2 m

M_x = kN·m

6.Shear force & bending momentHard

The marks A to G split the beam into six equal parts. At which mark is the bending moment largest in size, sagging or hogging? Click it in the diagram.

40 kN @ 0 m25 kN @ 6 m4 kN/m, 1–5 m

1A (x = 0 m)
2B (x = 1 m)
3C (x = 2 m)
4D (x = 3 m)
5E (x = 4 m)
6F (x = 5 m)
7G (x = 6 m)

7.Centroid & second moment of areaMedium

A 120 mm × 300 mm plate has a circular hole of diameter 40 mm on its vertical centre line, with its centre 195 mm above the bottom. Find the second moment of area I_x about the horizontal axis through the centroid.

b = 120 mmh = 300 mmd = 40 mmhole centre: y = 195 mm

I_x = × 10⁶ mm⁴

8.Centroid & second moment of areaHard

The T-section is used as a beam with the flange on top and carries a sagging bending moment of 40 kN·m. Find the size of the bending stress σ_top at the top edge.

b_f = 180 mmt_f = 20 mmt_w = 8 mmh_w = 240 mmM = 40 kN·m

σ_top = MPa

9.Mohr’s circle & stress transformationMedium

A point has σₓ = −10 MPa, σᵧ = 10 MPa and τₓᵧ = 30 MPa (tension positive). The element is rotated 60° counter-clockwise. Find the normal stress σ_y′ on the faces of the rotated element that are perpendicular to the rotated y′-axis.

σ_x = −10 MPaσ_y = 10 MPaτ_xy = 30 MPaθ = 60°

σ_y′ = MPa

10.Mohr’s circle & stress transformationHard

A solid shaft of diameter 40 mm carries a bending moment of 750 N·m together with a torque of 1000 N·m. At the top surface, where the bending stress is tensile and largest, find the maximum in-plane shear stress τ_max.

d = 40 mmM = 750 N·mT = 1000 N·m

τ_max = MPa

11.Beam deflectionMedium

A simply supported beam carries a point load P at a = 3 m from support A. Find the deflection δ_P under the load.

P = 14 kNa = 3 mL = 5 mE = 11 GPa (timber)I = 120 × 10⁶ mm⁴

δ_P = mm

12.Beam deflectionHard

A simply supported beam carries a uniformly distributed load w and a point load P at midspan. Using superposition, find the midspan deflection δ_max.

P = 2 kNw = 6 kN/mL = 6 mE = 70 GPa (aluminium)I = 160 × 10⁶ mm⁴

δ_max = mm

13.Column bucklingMedium

A column of length L made of steel is pinned at both ends. Using Euler’s formula, find its critical buckling load P_cr.

L = 1.5 mE = 200 GPa (steel)b × h = 30 × 50 mm

P_cr = kN

14.Column bucklingHard

A solid round column of length L made of aluminium is fixed at both ends. It must carry 110 kN with a factor of safety of 2 against buckling. Find the smallest diameter d.

P = 110 kNn = 2L = 5 mE = 70 GPa (aluminium)

d = mm

3Solutions

1.Axial stress & strain

Answer: ε = 4912 µε

Hooke’s law: within the elastic range σ = E·ε. Combining with σ = P/A and ε = δ/L gives δ = PL/(AE).

Stress

A = π·12²/4 = 113.1 mm²

σ = P/A = 65·1000/113.1 = 574.7 MPa

Strain (Hooke’s law)

E for copper = 117 GPa = 117000 MPa.

ε = σ/E = 574.7/117000 = 0.004912 = 4912 µε

Answer

ε = 4912 µε

2.Axial stress & strain

Answer: σ_max = 350.1 MPa

Axially loaded members: each prismatic segment obeys δ = PL/(AE). For members in series the elongations add.

Same force in both segments

The free end carries P, so every section of the bar carries the same axial force P. Only the areas and materials change.

A₁ = π·40²/4 = 1257 mm², A₂ = π·20²/4 = 314.2 mm²

σ₁ = 87.54 MPa

σ₂ = 350.1 MPa

Largest stress

The thinner segment has the smaller area, so it carries the larger stress.

σ_max = 350.1 MPa

Answer

σ_max = 350.1 MPa

3.Torsion of shafts

Answer: G = 79.96 GPa

Polar moment and angle

J = π·12⁴/32 = 2036 mm⁴

φ = 4.4·π/180 = 0.07679 rad

Shear modulus

T = 50 N·m = 50000 N·mm

G = TL/(Jφ) = 50000·250/(2036·0.07679) = 79957 MPa

G = 79.96 GPa

Answer

G = 79.96 GPa

Compare: steel ≈ 80 GPa, brass ≈ 39 GPa, aluminium ≈ 26 GPa.

4.Torsion of shafts

Answer: T_A = 96.15 N·m

Torsion of circular shafts: shear stress grows linearly from zero at the centre to τ_max = T·r/J at the surface, with J = πd⁴/32 for a solid shaft and J = π(d_o⁴ − d_i⁴)/32 for a hollow one. The angle of twist is φ = TL/(GJ) in radians. Power and torque are linked by P = T·ω. When both ends are fixed, statics alone gives only T_A + T_B = T₀; the second equation is compatibility (equal twist of both parts at the loaded section).

Equilibrium and compatibility

T_A + T_B = 250

T_A·a = T_B·b

T_A = 250·0.5/1.3 = 96.15 N·m

T_B = 250·0.8/1.3 = 153.8 N·m

Answer

T_A = 96.15 N·m

5.Shear force & bending moment

Answer: M_x = 20 kN·m

Method of sections: cut the beam where you want the internal forces and keep one side. The shear force V balances the vertical forces on that side, and the bending moment M balances their moments about the cut.

Support reactions

Equilibrium of the whole beam.

UDL resultant: W = w·ℓ = 5·6 = 30 kN, acting at x̄ = 3 m

ΣM_A = 0: R_B·6 = 5·6·3

R_B = 90/6 = 15 kN

ΣF_y = 0: R_A = 30 − 15 = 15 kN

Cut at x = 2 m and keep the left part

Only forces left of the cut appear. A UDL portion acts as one force at the middle of that portion.

M = R_A·x − (each load left of the cut × its distance to the cut)

M_x = 15·2 − 5·2·1 = 20 kN·m

Answer

M_x = 20 kN·m

6.Shear force & bending moment

Answer: B (x = 1 m)

Largest bending moment: M changes slope wherever the shear force changes, so its peaks sit where the shear force crosses zero: under a point load, inside a distributed load, or over a support of an overhang. At a fixed support of a cantilever the moment is largest at the wall. Compare the size of M at those places, sagging or hogging.

Support reactions

Take moments about one support, then use the vertical force balance.

R₁ = 51.75 kN, R₂ = 29.25 kN

Bending moment at every mark

Sum the moments of all forces on one side of the cut. Sagging is positive, hogging negative.

M_A = 0, M_B = −40 kN·m, M_C = −30.25, M_D = −24.5, M_E = −22.75, M_F = −25, M_G = 0

Answer

Mark B: M_B = −40 kN·m

7.Centroid & second moment of area

Answer: I_x = 267.2 × 10⁶ mm⁴

Sections with holes: treat a hole as a negative area. The centroid is ȳ = (A₁y₁ − A₂y₂)/(A₁ − A₂), with A₁, y₁ for the full plate and A₂, y₂ for the hole. For the second moment of area about the centroidal axis, use the parallel-axis theorem for each part and subtract the hole: I = (I_c1 + A₁d₁²) − (I_c2 + A₂d₂²), where d is the distance from each part's own centroid to the axis through ȳ. A rectangle has I_c = bh³/12 and a circle I_c = πd⁴/64.

Centroid

ȳ = (36000·150 − 1257·195)/(36000 − 1257) = 148.4 mm

Full plate about ȳ

120·300³/12 + 36000·1.628² = 270.1 × 10⁶ mm⁴

Hole about ȳ

π·40⁴/64 + 1257·46.63² = 2.858 × 10⁶ mm⁴

Subtract

I_x = 267.2 × 10⁶ mm⁴

Answer

I_x = 267.2 × 10⁶ mm⁴

8.Centroid & second moment of area

Answer: σ_top = 72.42 MPa

Composite areas: split the section into rectangles. The centroid is the area-weighted average ȳ = ΣAᵢyᵢ/ΣAᵢ. The second moment of area about the centroidal axis adds each part’s own bh³/12 and its parallel-axis term A·d², where d is the distance from the part’s centroid to the overall centroid. Bending stress is σ = M·y/I.

Split into two rectangles

Measure every y from the bottom edge.

flange: A_f = 180·20 = 3600 mm², y_f = 240 + 20/2 = 250 mm

web: A_w = 8·240 = 1920 mm², y_w = 240/2 = 120 mm

Centroid

ȳ = (A_fy_f + A_wy_w)/(A_f + A_w) = (3600·250 + 1920·120)/5520 = 204.8 mm

Parallel-axis theorem

flange: 180·20³/12 + 3600·(250 − 204.8)² = 7.481 × 10⁶ mm⁴

web: 8·240³/12 + 1920·(120 − 204.8)² = 2.302 × 10⁷ mm⁴

I_x = 7.481 × 10⁶ + 2.302 × 10⁷ = 3.05 × 10⁷ mm⁴

Bending stress

The top edge is h − ȳ from the axis.

y = 260 − 204.8 = 55.22 mm

σ = M·y/I = 4 × 10⁷·55.22/3.05 × 10⁷ = 72.42 MPa

Answer

σ_top = 72.42 MPa

9.Mohr’s circle & stress transformation

Answer: σ_y′ = −30.98 MPa

Plane stress transformation: on a plane rotated by θ, σ = (σₓ + σᵧ)/2 + (σₓ − σᵧ)/2·cos 2θ + τₓᵧ·sin 2θ. Mohr’s circle shows all planes at once: its centre is at C = (σₓ + σᵧ)/2 and its radius is R = √(((σₓ − σᵧ)/2)² + τₓᵧ²). The principal stresses are C ± R, and the largest in-plane shear stress is R.

Transformation equation for the y′ face

σ_y′ = 0 − (−10)·(−0.5) − 30·0.866 = −30.98 MPa

Check

The sum of the normal stresses does not change with rotation.

σ_x′ = 30.98 MPa, σ_x′ + σ_y′ = 0 = σ_x + σ_y

Answer

σ_y′ = −30.98 MPa

10.Mohr’s circle & stress transformation

Answer: τ_max = 99.47 MPa

Stresses at the surface

σ = 32M/(πd³) = 32·750000/(π·40³) = 119.4 MPa

τ = 16T/(πd³) = 16·1000000/(π·40³) = 79.58 MPa

Mohr’s circle

C = σ/2 = 59.68 MPa

R = √(59.68² + 79.58²) = 99.47 MPa

Answer

τ_max = 99.47 MPa

11.Beam deflection

Answer: δ_P = 25.45 mm

Beam deflection: deflections come from integrating the curvature M/(EI) twice. Standard cases are tabulated, for example PL³/(3EI) for a cantilever with an end load and 5wL⁴/(384EI) for a simply supported beam under a full uniform load. Deflections from separate loads add (superposition).

Consistent units

Work in N and mm: P in N, w in N/mm (kN/m = N/mm), L in mm, E in N/mm² (GPa × 1000), I in mm⁴.

P = 14000 N, a = 3000 mm, b = 2000 mm, L = 5000 mm

EI = 1.32 × 10¹² N·mm²

Deflection under the load

δ_P = Pa²b²/(3EIL) = 14000·3000²·2000²/(3·1.32 × 10¹²·5000) = 25.45 mm

Answer

δ_P = 25.45 mm

12.Beam deflection

Answer: δ_max = 9.844 mm

Consistent units

Work in N and mm: P in N, w in N/mm (kN/m = N/mm), L in mm, E in N/mm² (GPa × 1000), I in mm⁴.

P = 2000 N, w = 6 N/mm, L = 6000 mm, EI = 1.12 × 10¹³ N·mm²

Each load on its own

δ_P = PL³/(48EI) = 2000·6000³/(48·1.12 × 10¹³) = 0.8036 mm

δ_w = 5wL⁴/(384EI) = 5·6·6000⁴/(384·1.12 × 10¹³) = 9.04 mm

Add them

δ_max = 0.8036 + 9.04 = 9.844 mm

Answer

δ_max = 9.844 mm

13.Column buckling

Answer: P_cr = 98.7 kN

Euler buckling: a slender column becomes unstable at P_cr = π²EI/(KL)², where KL is the effective length: K = 1 for pinned–pinned, 2 for fixed–free, 0.7 for fixed–pinned and 0.5 for fixed–fixed. It buckles about the axis with the smallest I. The formula holds for slender columns, whose critical stress stays below the yield stress.

Smallest second moment of area

A rectangle buckles about its weak axis, using the smaller dimension cubed.

I_min = h·b³/12 = 50·30³/12 = 112500 mm⁴

Effective length

KL = 1·1500 = 1500 mm

Critical load

P_cr = π²EI/(KL)² = π²·200000·112500/1500² = 98696 N = 98.7 kN

Answer

P_cr = 98.7 kN

14.Column buckling

Answer: d = 79.8 mm

Required critical load

P_cr = n·P = 2·110000 = 220000 N

KL = 0.5·5000 = 2500 mm

Solve for the diameter

d = (64·n·P·(KL)²/(π³E))^(1/4) = (64·220000·2500²/(π³·70000))^(1/4) = 79.8 mm

Answer

d = 79.8 mm

Check: the slenderness KL/r is 125.3, so the column is slender and Euler applies.

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