Keep sterile items sterile: if in doubt, it is not sterile; replace, never wipe.
Prevent harm in the environment: fall measures, restraints only as a last resort, RACE and PASS for fire.
Check the rights of medication administration, two identifiers and extra safeguards for high-alert drugs; report errors and near misses.
Prioritization & delegation
Method
Ask what will harm the patient soonest if nothing is done.
Apply ABC (C-A-B in cardiac arrest), then Maslow: physiological needs before safety, safety before psychological needs.
Compare the options: acute before chronic, unstable before stable, unexpected before expected, systemic before local, and check each finding against the patient’s baseline.
Assess before you act unless it is an emergency; then choose the step the others depend on.
For delegation, check the five rights: task, circumstance, person, directions and supervision. Assessment, teaching and evaluation stay with the RN.
Lab values & electrolytes
Method
Compare the value with the laboratory’s own reference range, then with the patient’s baseline and trend.
Check the sample: hemolysis, a delay, or blood drawn near an IV can give false results.
Link the value to its typical signs and to the drugs and conditions that cause it.
Look for interactions: low potassium or magnesium increases digoxin toxicity; dehydration raises lithium.
Act on the patient: assess, hold a drug if the level is unsafe, read back critical values and inform the prescriber.
Med-surg: cardiovascular & respiratory
Method
Name the problem: pump failure, blocked artery, rhythm, clot, airway narrowing, infection or a device problem.
Check the danger signs first: hypoxia, hypotension, chest pain, new confusion, a cold pulseless limb.
Match the oxygen to the patient: 94–98% for most, 88–92% for those at risk of CO₂ retention.
Link each drug to its test and its risk: warfarin and INR, heparin and aPTT and platelets, diuretics and potassium.
Choose the safe first action, then escalate and reassess.
Med-surg: neuro, endocrine & renal
Method
Check the glucose in every patient with new confusion, weakness or a seizure.
Use the level of consciousness as the earliest warning of brain trouble; pupils and Cushing’s triad come late.
For diabetes emergencies, separate DKA (ketones, acidosis) from HHS (very high osmolality, dehydration); give fluids first.
For sodium and water, decide whether ADH is in excess (SIADH) or missing (DI), and correct chronic changes slowly.
For kidney problems, sort the cause into pre-renal, intrinsic or post-renal, and watch potassium and fluid.
Med-surg: GI, perioperative & oncology
Method
Ask what could be hidden: internal bleeding, infection without fever, hypoventilation behind a normal SpO₂.
Use the timing after surgery to narrow the complications: bleeding in hours, chest problems in days, wound and leak problems later.
For pain, assess, treat with multimodal analgesia, reassess, and monitor sedation with every opioid.
For cancer patients, treat any illness during the nadir as neutropenic sepsis and know the oncological emergencies.
For burns, count only partial- and full-thickness areas, start the Parkland clock at the time of the burn and titrate to urine output.
Maternity & obstetric nursing
Method
Place the woman in time: weeks of pregnancy, stage of labour or day after birth, and decide what is normal at that point.
Look for the patient in danger: the mother, the fetus or the newborn, or more than one of them.
Link the finding to its cause: VEAL CHOP for decelerations, the four Ts for bleeding, BUBBLE-HE after birth.
Choose the action that improves blood flow and oxygen first (side-lying, stopping oxytocin, fundal massage), then escalate.
Pediatric nursing
Method
Note the child’s age first: it sets the normal vital signs, the milestones and the right pain scale.
Assess airway, breathing and circulation, remembering that children compensate and then deteriorate fast.
Match the action to the development stage and involve the family.
Check that the answer is safe for a child: weight-based, no aspirin in viral illness, no codeine under 12.
Mental health nursing
Method
Decide whether there is an immediate risk: suicide, violence, a drug emergency or a physical illness.
Act on safety first: observe, remove means, de-escalate, stop a harmful drug, get help.
Choose the therapeutic response: acknowledge feelings, present reality, avoid false reassurance and “why” questions.
Respect rights: the least restrictive option, consent and confidentiality with its limits.
Nursing math & unit conversions
Metric steps
1 kg = 1000 g, 1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg, 1 L = 1000 mL
Weight and length
1 kg = 2.2 lb, 1 lb = 16 oz, 1 in = 2.54 cm, 1 ft = 12 in
Household measures
1 tsp = 5 mL, 1 tbsp = 15 mL, 1 fl oz = 30 mL, 1 cup = 8 fl oz = 240 mL
falls 25, diagnosis 15, aid 15/30, IV 20, gait 10/20, mental status 15
NEWS2 risk
0–4 low; single 3 low–medium; 5–6 medium; ≥ 7 high
Mean arterial pressure
MAP = (SBP + 2·DBP)/3 = DBP + PP/3
Pulse pressure and shock index
PP = SBP − DBP, SI = HR/SBP
Body mass index
BMI = kg/m² = 703·lb/in²
Method
Find the score sheet that the question uses and its range (GCS 3–15, APGAR 0–10, Braden 6–23, Morse 0–125).
Score every item separately, matching the description to its level.
Add the item scores and check that the total lies inside the range.
Apply the cut-offs: for NEWS2 also look for any single parameter scoring 3.
For derived values use MAP = (SBP + 2·DBP)/3, PP = SBP − DBP, SI = HR/SBP and BMI = kg/m².
2Practice problems
1.Nursing fundamentalsMedium
A patient shouts at the nurse that nobody has told them when their operation will be. What is the best first response?
AArgue back that the staff are very busy
BStay calm, listen and acknowledge their frustration
CWalk away until the patient calms down by themselves
DTell the patient to stop shouting or leave the ward
2.Nursing fundamentalsHard
At the start of a shift, which task should the nurse do first?
AGive the first IV antibiotic dose to a patient with suspected sepsis
BChange the bed linen of a patient who is going home
COrder supplies for the ward store room
DUpdate the ward whiteboard with the names of all the new patients
3.Infection control & patient safetyMedium
When is a prophylactic antibiotic usually given to prevent a surgical site infection?
AWithin about 60 minutes before the incision
BOnly if a fever develops after surgery
CThe day after surgery, once the wound is closed
DOne week before surgery
4.Infection control & patient safetyHard
A nurse finds that a patient has been taking their own sleeping pills from a bedside drawer while also receiving a hypnotic from the ward. What should the nurse do?
AStop giving the hospital hypnotic without telling the provider or the pharmacy
BLet the patient keep them, since they are the patient’s own
CSecure the home medication per policy and inform the provider
DThrow the patient’s pills away in the bin
5.Prioritization & delegationMedium
An older adult asks for something to help them sleep. Which drug is most likely to cause confusion and falls in this age group?
ADiphenhydramine
BA warm milky drink
CMelatonin
DAcetaminophen (paracetamol)
6.Prioritization & delegationHard
A patient has a heart rate of 38/min, feels dizzy and has a blood pressure of 80/50 mmHg. Which drug is usually given first, as prescribed?
ADiltiazem
BAtropine
CDigoxin
DMetoprolol
7.Clinical nursingMedium
A patient with DKA has an arterial blood gas showing a low pH and a low bicarbonate. Which disturbance is this?
ARespiratory alkalosis
BMetabolic alkalosis
CMetabolic acidosis
DRespiratory acidosis
8.Clinical nursingHard
A patient admitted after a fall takes many regular medicines. Which safety step on admission helps prevent medication errors?
ADoubling the doses to make up for any missed while at home
BPrescribing only the medicines that the patient can remember taking
CMedicines reconciliation against reliable sources, such as primary care records
DStopping all regular medicines until the day the patient is discharged
9.Lab values & electrolytesMedium
A woman who is 30 weeks pregnant has a new blood pressure of 152/98 mm Hg. Which urine finding would most support preeclampsia?
AProtein in the urine
BKetones in the urine
CGlucose in the urine
DNitrites in the urine
10.Lab values & electrolytesHard
A patient has a continuous heparin infusion for a pulmonary embolism. A new nurse plans to adjust the infusion using today's INR of 1.1. What should the experienced nurse explain?
AThe INR is the correct test, and 1.1 means heparin is therapeutic
BThe INR of 1.1 means the heparin rate must be doubled at once
CHeparin is adjusted using the aPTT or anti-Xa level, not the INR
DHeparin needs no laboratory monitoring once the infusion is started
11.PharmacologyMedium
How should a topical corticosteroid cream usually be applied?
AAs a thick layer over the whole body
BUnder a tight plastic dressing every night without advice
CAs a thin layer to the affected area only, as directed
DOn broken, infected skin to speed healing
12.PharmacologyHard
Why is gentamicin dosing monitored with blood levels?
AIt only works at very high concentrations
BIt is metabolised entirely by the liver, so liver function decides the dose
CIt is nephrotoxic and ototoxic with a narrow therapeutic index
DIt causes severe hypoglycaemia
13.Med-surg: cardiovascular & respiratoryMedium
When should an adult with cystic fibrosis take pancreatic enzyme capsules?
AOnly when they have diarrhoea
BOnce a day on waking, at least an hour before any food
CWith all meals and snacks that contain fat
DOnly at bedtime
14.Med-surg: cardiovascular & respiratoryHard
A patient who had a coronary stent after an NSTEMI asks why they take two antiplatelet drugs. Which answer is most accurate?
ATwo pathways are blocked, protecting the stent, but bleeding risk rises
BThe two drugs lower cholesterol so new blockages cannot form
CThe second drug protects the stomach lining from the aspirin
DThe second drug dissolves the clot that caused the original heart attack
15.Med-surg: neuro, endocrine & renalMedium
Which nursing action helps most to prevent and manage delirium in an older inpatient?
AKeep the lights on all night so the patient can see clearly
BMove the patient to a different room each day for variety
CRestrain the patient so that they do not wander off the ward
DUse glasses and hearing aids and reorient the patient often
16.Med-surg: neuro, endocrine & renalHard
A patient with acromegaly snores loudly, stops breathing at times in sleep and is sleepy during the day. What is most likely?
ANormal snoring
BObstructive sleep apnoea
CNarcolepsy
DAn anxiety disorder
17.Med-surg: GI, perioperative & oncologyMedium
Why are urinary catheters removed as early as possible after surgery?
ABecause catheters always cause kidney stones
BBecause the catheter stops the bowel working
CTo reduce the risk of catheter-associated infection
DBecause patients cannot drink normally while a catheter is in place
18.Med-surg: GI, perioperative & oncologyHard
During burn resuscitation, an 80 kg adult's urine output is 15 mL/h for 2 hours. What does this indicate?
AA blocked catheter that should simply be removed
BFluid overload; all IV fluids should be stopped now
CUnder-resuscitation; the fluid rate usually needs increasing
DA normal urine output for a patient with burns
19.Maternity & obstetric nursingMedium
Why is congenital hypothyroidism included in newborn screening?
AIt can only be treated before birth
BEarly treatment prevents brain damage
CIt causes hip dysplasia
DIt causes jaundice that cannot be treated
20.Maternity & obstetric nursingHard
The nurse must deliver a baby before the provider arrives. As the head crowns, what should the nurse do?
AApply gentle pressure to the head to slow the birth
BPull firmly on the head to speed the birth
CAsk the woman to cross her legs tightly until help comes
DPush the head back to delay the birth
21.Pediatric nursingMedium
Which finding suggests developmental dysplasia of the hip in an infant?
ABowed legs in a toddler
BA barking cough
CAsymmetric skin folds of the thighs or buttocks and limited hip abduction
DEqual leg length, symmetrical skin folds and full, easy abduction of both hips
22.Pediatric nursingHard
A 15-year-old boy with mumps develops a painful, swollen testis. What is the most likely explanation?
AAn inguinal hernia caused by coughing
BMumps orchitis, a known complication after puberty
CA late side effect of the MMR vaccine given in childhood
DTesticular cancer unrelated to the infection
23.Mental health nursingMedium
A patient taking sertraline wants to take ibuprofen regularly for arthritis. What should the nurse teach?
AThe combination increases the risk of bleeding, especially in the stomach, so discuss it with the prescriber
BIbuprofen will make the sertraline work faster
CThe combination is completely safe because they act on different systems
DIbuprofen should be taken instead of sertraline on the days when the arthritis pain is bad, to avoid any interaction
24.Mental health nursingHard
A patient says she has saved a large supply of tablets at home and plans to take them all this weekend. What is the priority action?
AKeep her under close observation, ensure her immediate safety and inform the team urgently
BAsk her to sign a written promise not to harm herself, then let her go home for the weekend as planned
CTell her things will look better after the weekend
DArrange a routine follow-up appointment in a month
25.Nursing math & unit conversionsMedium
Practice exercise (made-up values, not clinical guidance). A newborn weighs 8 lb 8 oz. Using 1 lb = 16 oz and 1 kg = 2.2 lb, find the weight m in kilograms. Round to two decimal places.
8 lb 8 oz1 lb = 16 oz1 kg = 2.2 lb
m = kg
26.Nursing math & unit conversionsHard
Practice exercise (made-up values, not clinical guidance). During a shift a patient takes ½ tsp of cough syrup, 1 cup of tea, 2 fl oz of juice, 3 tbsp of liquid supplement. Using the equivalents given, find the total oral intake V in mL.
1 tsp = 5 mL1 cup = 8 fl oz = 240 mL1 fl oz = 30 mL1 tbsp = 15 mL
V = mL
27.Dosage calculationsMedium
A child weighing 24 kg is prescribed 5 mg/kg of a drug. The stock solution contains 25 mg/mL. Draw up the dose: what volume V do you give?
24 kg5 mg/kg25 mg/mL
V = mL
28.Dosage calculationsHard
A child weighing 8 kg is prescribed 5 mg/kg per dose of an oral suspension that contains 125 mg in 5 mL. What volume V do you give?
8 kg5 mg/kg125 mg/5 mL
V = mL
29.IV infusion ratesMedium
A drip runs at 40 gtt/min through a set of 60 gtt/mL. How many millilitres V does the patient receive in 12 hours?
40 gtt/min60 gtt/mL12 h
V = mL
30.IV infusion ratesHard
A bag contains 250 mg of a drug in 500 mL and runs at 8 mL/h. How many milligrams per hour D does the patient receive?
250 mg/500 mL8 mL/h
D = mg/h
31.IV fluids & fluid balanceMedium
Practice exercise (made-up values, not clinical guidance). The record shows a patient's intake and output for one 8-hour shift. The patient weighs 82 kg. Find the average urine output U in mL/kg/h. Round to two decimal places.
Practice exercise (made-up values, not clinical guidance). A 1000 mL bag runs by pump at 100 mL/h. At 08:30, 50 mL have already been infused. How many hours t until the bag is empty? Round to one decimal place.
1000 mL50 mL infused100 mL/h
t = h
33.Clinical assessment scoresMedium
Practice exercise (made-up values, not clinical guidance). A practice patient after a head injury opens the eyes when spoken to, says inappropriate, random words and shows as the best motor response: abnormal flexion of the arms (decorticate posture). Work out the GCS and classify the head injury by it. Click your answer.
1mild
2moderate
3severe
34.Clinical assessment scoresHard
Practice exercise (made-up values, not clinical guidance). Use the NEWS2 chart (SpO₂ scale 1) for these observations: respiration rate 20/min, SpO₂ 99% on room air, blood pressure 112/68 mmHg, pulse 82/min, alert, temperature 35.5 °C. Which clinical risk group does the patient fall into? Click it.
RR 20SpO₂ 99%airSBP 112HR 82AT 35.5 °C
1low
2low–medium
3medium
4high
3Solutions
1.Nursing fundamentals
Answer: B · Stay calm, listen and acknowledge their frustration
Why this is the answer
Listening calmly and acknowledging feelings often de-escalates anger. The nurse then finds out the answer or explains what will happen next. Staff safety is maintained throughout.
Answer
B · Stay calm, listen and acknowledge their frustration
2.Nursing fundamentals
Answer: A · Give the first IV antibiotic dose to a patient with suspected sepsis
Why this is the answer
In sepsis antibiotics are time-critical, and every hour of delay increases the risk of death. Routine tasks are done afterwards.
Answer
A · Give the first IV antibiotic dose to a patient with suspected sepsis
3.Infection control & patient safety
Answer: A · Within about 60 minutes before the incision
Why this is the answer
For most drugs, prophylaxis is given within 60 minutes before the incision so tissue levels are high during surgery. Some drugs, such as vancomycin, start earlier because they are infused over longer.
Answer
A · Within about 60 minutes before the incision
4.Infection control & patient safety
Answer: C · Secure the home medication per policy and inform the provider
Why this is the answer
Unrecorded home medicines can lead to duplicate doses, interactions and falls. They are stored or sent home according to policy, and the provider is told so the treatment plan can be reviewed.
Answer
C · Secure the home medication per policy and inform the provider
5.Prioritization & delegation
Answer: A · Diphenhydramine
Why this is the answer
Diphenhydramine is strongly anticholinergic and can cause confusion, urinary retention and falls in older adults. It is on lists of drugs to avoid in this group.
Answer
A · Diphenhydramine
6.Prioritization & delegation
Answer: B · Atropine
Why this is the answer
Atropine is the first-line drug for symptomatic bradycardia. Metoprolol, digoxin and diltiazem slow the heart and would make things worse; pacing may be needed if atropine does not work.
Answer
B · Atropine
7.Clinical nursing
Answer: C · Metabolic acidosis
Why this is the answer
In DKA, ketoacids consume bicarbonate, causing a metabolic acidosis. The patient breathes deeply and fast (Kussmaul breathing) to lower PaCO2 as compensation.
Answer
C · Metabolic acidosis
8.Clinical nursing
Answer: C · Medicines reconciliation against reliable sources, such as primary care records
Why this is the answer
Medicines reconciliation compares several sources to produce an accurate medication list. It finds omissions, duplications and errors, and is especially important in older people with polypharmacy.
Answer
C · Medicines reconciliation against reliable sources, such as primary care records
9.Lab values & electrolytes
Answer: A · Protein in the urine
Why this is the answer
Preeclampsia is new hypertension after 20 weeks of pregnancy with proteinuria or other signs of organ involvement, such as low platelets, raised liver enzymes or rising creatinine. Proteinuria reflects damage to the glomerular filter.Checked against:Preeclampsia · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026)
Answer
A · Protein in the urine
10.Lab values & electrolytes
Answer: C · Heparin is adjusted using the aPTT or anti-Xa level, not the INR
Why this is the answer
Unfractionated heparin infusions are adjusted using the aPTT or anti-factor Xa level according to protocol. The INR monitors warfarin and is little affected by heparin at usual doses. Using the wrong test can cause under- or over-anticoagulation.Checked against:Partial Thromboplastin Time (PTT) Test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026); Prothrombin Time Test and INR (PT/INR) · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024)
Answer
C · Heparin is adjusted using the aPTT or anti-Xa level, not the INR
11.Pharmacology
Answer: C · As a thin layer to the affected area only, as directed
Why this is the answer
Thin application to affected skin limits systemic absorption and skin atrophy. Occlusive dressings increase absorption and are used only when prescribed.
Answer
C · As a thin layer to the affected area only, as directed
12.Pharmacology
Answer: C · It is nephrotoxic and ototoxic with a narrow therapeutic index
Why this is the answer
Aminoglycosides like gentamicin can damage the kidneys and the inner ear. They are cleared renally, so levels rise in kidney impairment and are monitored.
Answer
C · It is nephrotoxic and ototoxic with a narrow therapeutic index
13.Med-surg: cardiovascular & respiratory
Answer: C · With all meals and snacks that contain fat
Why this is the answer
In CF, thick secretions block the pancreatic ducts, causing fat malabsorption and fatty stools. Enzyme capsules are taken with every meal and fat-containing snack, with the dose adjusted to fat intake. Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) are also supplemented.
Answer
C · With all meals and snacks that contain fat
14.Med-surg: cardiovascular & respiratory
Answer: A · Two pathways are blocked, protecting the stent, but bleeding risk rises
Why this is the answer
Dual antiplatelet therapy (aspirin plus a P2Y₁₂ inhibitor such as clopidogrel, ticagrelor or prasugrel) reduces recurrent events and stent thrombosis, usually for up to 12 months. It increases bleeding risk and must not be stopped early without cardiology advice, especially after a stent.
Answer
A · Two pathways are blocked, protecting the stent, but bleeding risk rises
15.Med-surg: neuro, endocrine & renal
Answer: D · Use glasses and hearing aids and reorient the patient often
Why this is the answer
Non-drug measures are the mainstay of delirium care: glasses and hearing aids, clocks and calendars, familiar faces, good sleep, hydration, mobility and treating the cause. Restraints and frequent moves make delirium worse.
Answer
D · Use glasses and hearing aids and reorient the patient often
16.Med-surg: neuro, endocrine & renal
Answer: B · Obstructive sleep apnoea
Why this is the answer
Growth hormone excess enlarges the tongue and upper airway tissues, so obstructive sleep apnoea is common in acromegaly. It needs assessment because it raises cardiovascular risk and affects safety under anaesthesia.
Answer
B · Obstructive sleep apnoea
17.Med-surg: GI, perioperative & oncology
Answer: C · To reduce the risk of catheter-associated infection
Why this is the answer
The risk of catheter-associated urinary tract infection increases with duration. Daily review of the need for a catheter, and early removal, reduce infection and help mobilisation.
Answer
C · To reduce the risk of catheter-associated infection
18.Med-surg: GI, perioperative & oncology
Answer: C · Under-resuscitation; the fluid rate usually needs increasing
Why this is the answer
The usual adult target is about 0.5 mL/kg/h (here 40 mL/h). An output of 15 mL/h suggests inadequate kidney perfusion, and the fluid rate is increased as prescribed after checking the catheter. Excessive fluid is also harmful, causing oedema and compartment syndromes, so the formula is only a starting point.
Answer
C · Under-resuscitation; the fluid rate usually needs increasing
19.Maternity & obstetric nursing
Answer: B · Early treatment prevents brain damage
Why this is the answer
Untreated congenital hypothyroidism causes poor growth and intellectual disability. Daily levothyroxine started in the first weeks allows normal development.
Answer
B · Early treatment prevents brain damage
20.Maternity & obstetric nursing
Answer: A · Apply gentle pressure to the head to slow the birth
Why this is the answer
Gentle pressure on the fetal head, with the woman panting, slows birth and reduces perineal tearing and rapid pressure changes in the fetal skull. The nurse then checks for a nuchal cord and supports the baby's body.
Answer
A · Apply gentle pressure to the head to slow the birth
21.Pediatric nursing
Answer: C · Asymmetric skin folds of the thighs or buttocks and limited hip abduction
Why this is the answer
Signs include asymmetric skin folds, limited abduction, an apparently shorter leg and positive Ortolani or Barlow tests. Treatment in infancy often uses a Pavlik harness.
Answer
C · Asymmetric skin folds of the thighs or buttocks and limited hip abduction
22.Pediatric nursing
Answer: B · Mumps orchitis, a known complication after puberty
Why this is the answer
Orchitis is a common complication of mumps in males after puberty, usually a few days after the parotid swelling. It is painful and, rarely, reduces fertility. Supportive care includes analgesia and scrotal support.
Answer
B · Mumps orchitis, a known complication after puberty
23.Mental health nursing
Answer: A · The combination increases the risk of bleeding, especially in the stomach, so discuss it with the prescriber
Why this is the answer
SSRIs reduce serotonin uptake into platelets, which impairs clotting. Combined with NSAIDs, aspirin or anticoagulants, the risk of gastrointestinal bleeding rises.
Answer
A · The combination increases the risk of bleeding, especially in the stomach, so discuss it with the prescriber
24.Mental health nursing
Answer: A · Keep her under close observation, ensure her immediate safety and inform the team urgently
Why this is the answer
A specific plan, available means and a time frame indicate high risk. The patient must not be left alone, the team is informed at once, and access to means is reduced as part of urgent assessment and safety planning.
Answer
A · Keep her under close observation, ensure her immediate safety and inform the team urgently
25.Nursing math & unit conversions
Answer: m = 3.86 kg
Household measures and weight: nursing exams use rounded equivalents: 1 teaspoon (tsp) = 5 mL, 1 tablespoon (tbsp) = 15 mL = 3 tsp, 1 fluid ounce (fl oz) = 30 mL = 2 tbsp, and 1 cup = 8 fl oz = 240 mL. For weight, 1 kg = 2.2 lb and 1 lb = 16 oz; for length, 1 inch = 2.54 cm. Set the conversion up so that the unit you do not want cancels out.
Ounces to pounds
8 oz/16 = 0.5 lb
8 + 0.5 = 8.5 lb
Pounds to kilograms
m = 8.5/2.2 = 3.864 ≈ 3.86 kg
Answer
m = 3.86 kg
26.Nursing math & unit conversions
Answer: V = 347.5 mL
Household measures and weight: nursing exams use rounded equivalents: 1 teaspoon (tsp) = 5 mL, 1 tablespoon (tbsp) = 15 mL = 3 tsp, 1 fluid ounce (fl oz) = 30 mL = 2 tbsp, and 1 cup = 8 fl oz = 240 mL. For weight, 1 kg = 2.2 lb and 1 lb = 16 oz; for length, 1 inch = 2.54 cm. Set the conversion up so that the unit you do not want cancels out.
Each item in mL
½ tsp = 0.5·5 = 2.5 mL
1 cup = 1·240 = 240 mL
2 fl oz = 2·30 = 60 mL
3 tbsp = 3·15 = 45 mL
Add
V = 2.5 + 240 + 60 + 45 = 347.5 mL
Answer
V = 347.5 mL
27.Dosage calculations
Answer: V = 4.8 mL
Drawing up a dose: volume = (prescribed dose/stock strength) × stock volume. Convert to the same units first, then check that the volume fits the syringe and lands on one of its graduations.
Dose from body weight
D = 5·24 = 120 mg
Volume
V = 120/25 = 4.8 mL
On the syringe
On this 10 mL syringe every small line is 0.2 mL.
Answer
V = 4.8 mL
28.Dosage calculations
Answer: V = 1.6 mL
Dose calculation: the amount to give equals what is prescribed divided by what you have, times the quantity it comes in: amount = (desired dose/stock strength) × stock volume. Always keep the units the same (convert g to mg, mg to mcg first) and check that the answer is sensible.
Dose from weight
5·8 = 40 mg
Volume
V = (40/125)·5 = 1.6 mL
Answer
V = 1.6 mL
29.IV infusion rates
Answer: V = 480 mL
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
Rate in mL/h
40·60/60 = 40 mL/h
Volume
V = 40·12 = 480 mL
Answer
V = 480 mL
30.IV infusion rates
Answer: D = 4 mg/h
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
Concentration
250/500 = 0.5 mg/mL
Dose rate
D = 0.5·8 = 4 mg/h
Answer
D = 4 mg/h
31.IV fluids & fluid balance
Answer: U = 2.21 mL/kg/h
Intake and output: intake counts everything that goes in (oral fluids, IV infusions, IV medications and flushes, tube feeds); ice chips count as half their volume. Output counts urine, drains, vomit and other losses. Balance = total intake − total output; a negative balance is a net loss. The numbers are for practice only; at the bedside always follow local protocols and have high-risk doses double-checked.
Total urine
450 + 500 + 500 = 1450 mL
Per kilogram per hour
U = 1450/(82·8) = 2.21 mL/kg/h
Answer
U = 2.21 mL/kg/h
32.IV fluids & fluid balance
Answer: t = 9.5 h
Infusion time: time (h) = volume to infuse (mL)/rate (mL/h); use the volume still left in the bag, not the bag size. Volume infused = rate × time. Convert decimal hours to hours and minutes with the fraction × 60 (0.5 h = 30 min, not 50 min). The numbers are for practice only; at the bedside always follow local protocols and have high-risk doses double-checked.
Volume left
1000 − 50 = 950 mL
Time
t = 950/100 = 9.5 h
Answer
t = 9.5 h
That is about 9 h 30 min, so the bag runs out at about 18:00.
33.Clinical assessment scores
Answer: moderate
Glasgow Coma Scale: add the best response in three areas. Eye opening E: 4 spontaneous, 3 to sound or speech, 2 to pressure, 1 none. Verbal V: 5 oriented, 4 confused, 3 inappropriate words, 2 incomprehensible sounds, 1 none. Motor M: 6 obeys commands, 5 localises, 4 normal flexion (withdraws), 3 abnormal flexion, 2 extension, 1 none. The total runs from 3 to 15. After a head injury, 13–15 is usually called mild, 9–12 moderate and 3–8 severe.
Score each area
E: opens the eyes when spoken to → 3
V: says inappropriate, random words → 3
M: abnormal flexion of the arms (decorticate posture) → 3
Add
GCS = 3 + 3 + 3 = 9
Severity
GCS 9 → moderate
Answer
moderate
34.Clinical assessment scores
Answer: low
NEWS2 (National Early Warning Score 2, Royal College of Physicians 2017): score each of the seven parameters with the chart (respiration rate, SpO₂ on scale 1, air or supplemental oxygen, systolic blood pressure, pulse, consciousness on the ACVPU scale and temperature) and add the scores. Clinical risk: 0–4 low; a score of 3 in any single parameter low–medium; 5–6 medium; 7 or more high. A total of 5 or more needs an urgent response.
Score each parameter
RR 20/min → 0
SpO₂ 99% → 0
on air → 0
SBP 112 mmHg → 0
HR 82/min → 0
alert (A) → 0
T 35.5 °C → 1
Total and red scores
NEWS2 = 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 1 = 1
No parameter scores 3.
Risk group
low
Answer
low
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