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1Formulas and methods
Vectors: dot & cross product
Magnitude
|a| = √(ax² + ay² + az²)
Unit vector
û = a/|a|
Components from an angle
Fx = F·cos θ, Fy = F·sin θ
Dot product
a·b = axbx + ayby + azbz = |a||b|cos θ
Scalar projection of a onto b
a·b/|b|
Work
W = F·d
Cross product
a × b = (aybz − azby, azbx − axbz, axby − aybx)
Areas
parallelogram |a × b|, triangle ½|a × b|
Moment about O
MO = r × F, r = A − O
Volume of a parallelepiped
V = |a·(b × c)|
Method
Write every vector in components; for a force given by a magnitude and an angle, use F·cos θ and F·sin θ.
For lengths and directions use the magnitude √(x² + y² + z²) and the unit vector a/|a|.
Use the dot product for angles, projections, perpendicularity and work: a·b = |a||b|cos θ.
Use the cross product for perpendicular vectors, areas and moments: write the three components carefully, keeping the order a × b.
Beam support reactions
Equilibrium
ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0, ΣM = 0
Uniform load
resultant w·L at the middle of the load
Moment
M = F·d
Method
Draw a free-body diagram and replace each support by its reactions.
Replace every distributed load by a single force at its centroid.
Take moments about one support to find the reaction at the other.
Use ΣFy = 0 to find the remaining reaction, and check with a second moment equation.
Truss: method of joints
Method of joints
ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0 at each joint
Method of sections
ΣM = 0 about a cut point
Member force
positive = tension, negative = compression
Method
Find the support reactions for the whole truss.
Method of joints: start at a joint with at most two unknown member forces and use ΣFx = 0 and ΣFy = 0.
Method of sections: cut through the member you need and take moments about a point where the other unknown members meet.
Assume tension; a negative answer means compression.
Frames & machines
Equilibrium of each member
ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0, ΣM = 0
Two-force member
force along the line through its two pins
Pin force
equal and opposite on the two members it joins
Magnitude of a pin force
F = √(Fx² + Fy²)
Lever, pliers, bell crank
Fin·a = Fout·b
Toggle
Flink = F/(2 sin θ), Q = F/(2 tan θ)
Uniform load
resultant w·L at the middle of the load
Method
Draw the whole structure and find the support reactions if there are no more than three unknowns.
Spot the two-force members: loaded only at two pins, their force acts along the line between the pins.
Take the frame apart and draw every member on its own, with equal and opposite pin forces where members meet.
For each member, take moments about a pin with unknown forces, then use ΣFx = 0 and ΣFy = 0; combine components into a magnitude at the end.
Shear force & bending moment
Shear and moment
V = ΣF on one side, M = ΣF·d on one side
Bending stress
σ = M·y/I
Rectangle
I = bh³/12
Section modulus
W = I/ymax
Simply supported, uniform load
Mmax = wL²/8
Method
Find the support reactions from equilibrium of the whole beam.
Cut the beam at the section you need and keep one side.
Shear force: sum of the vertical forces on that side. Bending moment: sum of their moments about the cut.
For the maximum moment, find where the shear force is zero.
Centroid & second moment of area
Centroid
ȳ = ΣAiyi/ΣAi
Rectangle
I = bh³/12
Parallel-axis theorem
I = Ic + A·d²
Composite section
I = Σ(Ic,i + Aidi²)
2Practice problems
1.Vectors: dot & cross productMedium
Find the dot product a·b of a = (3, −1, −7) and b = (−7, 7, −7).
a = (3, −1, −7)b = (−7, 7, −7)
a·b =
2.Vectors: dot & cross productHard
Find the area A of the triangle with corners A(2, 0, 3), B(−1, 3, 1) and C(−1, −3, 0). Coordinates are in metres.
A(2, 0, 3)B(−1, 3, 1)C(−1, −3, 0)
A = m²
3.Beam support reactionsMedium
The simply supported beam has a pin at A and a roller at B. Find the vertical support reaction RA.
L = 10 mP1 = 30 kN at 1 mP2 = 55 kN at 7 m
RA = kN
4.Beam support reactionsHard
The simply supported beam has a pin at A and a roller at B. Find the vertical support reaction RB.
L = 6 mP = 10 kN at 2 mw = 6 kN/m from 1 to 4 m
RB = kN
5.Truss: method of jointsMedium
Use the method of joints to find the force FBC in member BC. Give tension as positive and compression as negative.
span = 4 mheight = 4 mB is 1 m from Avertical load = 50 kN
FBC = kN
6.Truss: method of jointsHard
Use the method of joints to find the force FAB in member AB. Give tension as positive and compression as negative.
span = 4 mheight = 3 mB is 1 m from Avertical load = 60 kNhorizontal load = 15 kN ←
FAB = kN
7.Frames & machinesMedium
The A-frame shown stands on a pin at A and a roller at B, 5 m apart. The legs meet at the pin C, 4 m high, and the horizontal tie DE is 0.8 m above the ground. A load of 5 kN acts at C. Find the magnitude of the force C that the pin C exerts on leg BC.
P = 5 kNAB = 5 mheight of C = 4 mheight of DE = 0.8 m
C = kN
8.Frames & machinesHard
The A-frame shown stands on a pin at A and a roller at B, 3 m apart. The legs meet at the pin C, 2.4 m high, and are tied by the horizontal bar DE at 1.2 m. A horizontal force of 8 kN to the right acts at C. Find the tension T in the tie.
P = 8 kNAB = 3 mheight of C = 2.4 mheight of DE = 1.2 m
T = kN
9.Shear force & bending momentMedium
The simply supported beam carries two point loads. Find the maximum bending moment Mmax in the beam.
L = 8 mP1 = 35 kN at 3 mP2 = 55 kN at 5 m
Mmax = kN·m
10.Shear force & bending momentHard
Find the bending moment Mx at the section x = 7 m from support A. Use sagging moments positive and upward shear on the left face positive.
L = 8 mP = 30 kN at 7 mw = 3 kN/m from 0 to 8 mx = 7 m
Mx = kN·m
11.Centroid & second moment of areaMedium
A 120 mm × 200 mm plate has a circular hole of diameter 50 mm on its vertical centre line, with its centre 130 mm above the bottom. Find the second moment of area Ix about the horizontal axis through the centroid.
b = 120 mmh = 200 mmd = 50 mmhole centre: y = 130 mm
Ix = × 10⁶ mm⁴
12.Centroid & second moment of areaHard
A cast-iron beam has the T-section shown, with the flange on top. The allowable stresses are 35 MPa in tension and 90 MPa in compression. Find the largest hogging bending moment Mallow the beam can carry (give its size).
Dot product:a·b = axbx + ayby + azbz = |a|·|b|·cos θ, a scalar. It gives the angle between two vectors, cos θ = a·b/(|a|·|b|), and it is zero when they are perpendicular. The scalar projection of a onto b is a·b/|b|, and a constant force F moving through a displacement d does work W = F·d.
Positive: the angle between the vectors is less than 90°.
2.Vectors: dot & cross product
Answer: A = 11.81 m²
Cross product:a × b = (aybz − azby, azbx − axbz, axby − aybx) is perpendicular to both vectors, and |a × b| = |a|·|b|·sin θ is the area of the parallelogram they span (the triangle has half of it). Order matters: b × a = −(a × b). The moment of a force F applied at point A about point O is MO = r × F, with r = A − O.
Static equilibrium: a body at rest has ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0 and ΣM = 0 about any point. Taking moments about one support removes that support’s reaction from the equation.
Free-body diagram
Replace the supports with reaction forces. A roller gives one vertical reaction; with only vertical loads the pin gives one vertical reaction too.
Equilibrium
Moments about A, counter-clockwise positive. Then vertical force balance.
ΣMA = 0: RB·10 = 30·1 + 55·7
RB = 415/10 = 41.5 kN
ΣFy = 0: RA = 85 − 41.5 = 43.5 kN
Answer
RA = 43.5 kN
4.Beam support reactions
Answer: RB = 10.83 kN
Static equilibrium: a body at rest has ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0 and ΣM = 0 about any point. Taking moments about one support removes that support’s reaction from the equation.
Free-body diagram
Replace the supports with reaction forces. A roller gives one vertical reaction; with only vertical loads the pin gives one vertical reaction too.
Equilibrium
Moments about A, counter-clockwise positive. Then vertical force balance.
UDL resultant: W = w·ℓ = 6·3 = 18 kN, acting at x̄ = 2.5 m
ΣMA = 0: RB·6 = 10·2 + 6·3·2.5
RB = 65/6 = 10.83 kN
ΣFy = 0: RA = 28 − 10.83 = 17.17 kN
Answer
RB = 10.83 kN
5.Truss: method of joints
Answer: FBC = −15.63 kN
Method of joints: every pin of a truss is in equilibrium, so ΣFx = 0 and ΣFy = 0 at each joint. Start at a joint with at most two unknown member forces. A negative result means the member is in compression.
Support reactions
Equilibrium of the whole truss. Moments about A, counter-clockwise positive.
ΣMA = 0: Cy·4 = 50·1 → Cy = 12.5 kN
ΣFy = 0: Ay = 50 − 12.5 = 37.5 kN
Joint C
The roller gives only a vertical reaction, so joint C has just two unknown member forces. Assume both in tension.
Method of joints: every pin of a truss is in equilibrium, so ΣFx = 0 and ΣFy = 0 at each joint. Start at a joint with at most two unknown member forces. A negative result means the member is in compression.
Support reactions
Equilibrium of the whole truss. Moments about A, counter-clockwise positive.
ΣMA = 0: Cy·4 = 60·1 − 15·3 → Cy = 3.75 kN
ΣFy = 0: Ay = 60 − 3.75 = 56.25 kN
ΣFx = 0: Ax = 15 kN
Joint A
Assume every member is in tension (pulling away from the joint). Only AB has a vertical component at A.
sin α = 3/3.162 = 0.9487
ΣFy = 0: Ay + FAB·sin α = 0
FAB = −56.25/0.9487 = −59.29 kN
Answer
FAB = −59.29 kN (compression)
7.Frames & machines
Answer: C = 3.172 kN
Frames and machines: unlike a truss, a frame contains at least one member that carries forces at more than two points, or a load between its pins. First look for two-force members: a member loaded only at two pins has its force along the line through them, so it adds one unknown, not two. Then use the whole structure for the support reactions when there are no more than three unknowns. Finally take the frame apart: draw each member separately, with the pin forces equal and opposite on the two members they connect, and write ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0 and ΣM = 0 for it. Taking moments about a pin removes both components of that pin force from the equation.
Tie force from leg BC
By = 2.5 kN
T = 2.5·2.5/3.2 = 1.953 kN
Components of the pin force on BC
Cx = T = 1.953 kN, Cy = −By = −2.5 kN
Magnitude
C = √(1.953² + 2.5²) = 3.172 kN
Answer
C = 3.172 kN
8.Frames & machines
Answer: T = 8 kN
Frames and machines: unlike a truss, a frame contains at least one member that carries forces at more than two points, or a load between its pins. First look for two-force members: a member loaded only at two pins has its force along the line through them, so it adds one unknown, not two. Then use the whole structure for the support reactions when there are no more than three unknowns. Finally take the frame apart: draw each member separately, with the pin forces equal and opposite on the two members they connect, and write ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0 and ΣM = 0 for it. Taking moments about a pin removes both components of that pin force from the equation.
Whole frame: moments about A
By·3 = 8·2.4
By = 6.4 kN
Leg BC: moments about C
6.4·1.5 = T·1.2
T = 8 kN
Answer
T = 8 kN
A positive T means the tie is in tension, as assumed.
9.Shear force & bending moment
Answer: Mmax = 142.5 kN·m
Method of sections: cut the beam where you want the internal forces and keep one side. The shear force V balances the vertical forces on that side, and the bending moment M balances their moments about the cut. Maximum moment: since dM/dx = V, the bending moment has its peak where the shear force passes through zero, either at a point load or inside a distributed load.
Support reactions
Equilibrium of the whole beam.
ΣMA = 0: RB·8 = 35·3 + 55·5
RB = 380/8 = 47.5 kN
ΣFy = 0: RA = 90 − 47.5 = 42.5 kN
Moment under each load
Keep the part left of each load.
under P1: M = RA·3 = 42.5·3 = 127.5 kN·m
under P2: M = RB·3 = 47.5·3 = 142.5 kN·m
Largest value
Mmax = 142.5 kN·m (under P2)
Answer
Mmax = 142.5 kN·m
10.Shear force & bending moment
Answer: Mx = 36.75 kN·m
Method of sections: cut the beam where you want the internal forces and keep one side. The shear force V balances the vertical forces on that side, and the bending moment M balances their moments about the cut.
Support reactions
Equilibrium of the whole beam.
UDL resultant: W = w·ℓ = 3·8 = 24 kN, acting at x̄ = 4 m
ΣMA = 0: RB·8 = 30·7 + 3·8·4
RB = 306/8 = 38.25 kN
ΣFy = 0: RA = 54 − 38.25 = 15.75 kN
Cut at x = 7 m and keep the left part
Only forces left of the cut appear. A UDL portion acts as one force at the middle of that portion.
M = RA·x − (each load left of the cut × its distance to the cut)
Mx = 15.75·7 − 3·7·3.5 = 36.75 kN·m
Answer
Mx = 36.75 kN·m
11.Centroid & second moment of area
Answer: Ix = 77.77 × 10⁶ mm⁴
Sections with holes: treat a hole as a negative area. The centroid is ȳ = (A₁y₁ − A₂y₂)/(A₁ − A₂), with A₁, y₁ for the full plate and A₂, y₂ for the hole. For the second moment of area about the centroidal axis, use the parallel-axis theorem for each part and subtract the hole: I = (Ic1 + A₁d₁²) − (Ic2 + A₂d₂²), where d is the distance from each part's own centroid to the axis through ȳ. A rectangle has Ic = bh³/12 and a circle Ic = πd⁴/64.
Centroid
ȳ = (24000·100 − 1963·130)/(24000 − 1963) = 97.33 mm
Full plate about ȳ
120·200³/12 + 24000·2.673² = 80.17 × 10⁶ mm⁴
Hole about ȳ
π·50⁴/64 + 1963·32.67² = 2.403 × 10⁶ mm⁴
Subtract
Ix = 77.77 × 10⁶ mm⁴
Answer
Ix = 77.77 × 10⁶ mm⁴
12.Centroid & second moment of area
Answer: Mallow = 6.508 kN·m
Composite areas: split the section into rectangles. The centroid is the area-weighted average ȳ = ΣAᵢyᵢ/ΣAᵢ. The second moment of area about the centroidal axis adds each part’s own bh³/12 and its parallel-axis term A·d², where d is the distance from the part’s centroid to the overall centroid. Bending stress is σ = M·y/I.