Thermodynamics 1: cram pack

Formula sheets, the key method steps for every topic and 8 practice problems, with full solutions at the back.

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1Formulas and methods

Ideal gas law

Ideal gas law: pV = nRT
Gas constant: R = 8.314 J/(mol·K)
Combined gas law: p₁V₁/T₁ = p₂V₂/T₂
Moles: n = m/M
Temperature: T[K] = T[°C] + 273.15

Energy balance

Sensible heat: Q = ṁ·c_p·ΔT
Latent heat: Q = ṁ·h_fg
Mixing: Σṁc_pT_in = Σṁc_pT_out
Water: c_p ≈ 4.18 kJ/(kg·K)

Heat engines & refrigerators

Efficiency: η = W/Q_H = 1 − Q_C/Q_H
Carnot efficiency: η_C = 1 − T_C/T_H (kelvin)
Refrigerator COP: COP_R = Q_C/W
Heat pump COP: COP_HP = Q_H/W = COP_R + 1
Energy balance: Q_H = W + Q_C

Gas power cycles

Isentropic, volume ratio: T₂/T₁ = r^k−1
Isentropic, pressure ratio: T₂/T₁ = r_p^(k−1)/k
Otto efficiency: η = 1 − 1/r^k−1
Diesel efficiency: η = 1 − (1/r^k−1)·(r_c^k − 1)/(k(r_c − 1))
Brayton efficiency: η = 1 − 1/r_p^(k−1)/k
Heat added: Otto: c_v(T₃ − T₂) Diesel, Brayton: c_p(T₃ − T₂)
Brayton net work: w = c_p[(T₃ − T₄) − (T₂ − T₁)]
Isentropic efficiencies: w_c = w_c,s/η_c, w_t = η_t·w_t,s
Cold air: k = 1.4, c_p = 1.005, c_v = 0.718 kJ/(kg·K)

2Practice problems

1.Ideal gas lawMedium

What volume V does 100 g of N₂ occupy at 250 kPa and 0 °C? Treat it as an ideal gas.

m = 100 gM = 28.01 g/molP = 250 kPaT = 0 °CR = 8.314 J/(mol·K)

V = L

2.Ideal gas lawHard

Find the density ρ of N₂ at 600 kPa and 90 °C, treating it as an ideal gas.

M = 28.01 g/molP = 600 kPaT = 90 °CR = 8.314 J/(mol·K)

ρ = kg/m³

3.Energy balanceMedium

Hot glycol mix cools water in a counter-flow heat exchanger with no heat loss. Find the water outlet temperature t_out.

ṁ_h = 2 kg/sc_p,h = 3.6 kJ/(kg·K)T_h: 170 → 70 °Cṁ_c = 1.5 kg/sc_p,c = 4.18 kJ/(kg·K)t_in = 20 °C

t_out = °C

4.Energy balanceHard

Hot light oil heats water in an exchanger that loses 15% of the heat released by the hot stream to the surroundings. Find the water flow rate ṁ_c needed.

ṁ_h = 2.5 kg/sc_p,h = 2.1 kJ/(kg·K)T_h: 170 → 100 °Ct: 10 → 75 °Cc_p,c = 4.18 kJ/(kg·K)loss = 15 %

ṁ_c = kg/s

5.Heat engines & refrigeratorsMedium

A heat engine works between a hot reservoir at 325 °C and a cold reservoir at 40 °C. It takes in 3200 kJ of heat. Find the most work W_max it could possibly produce.

T_H = 325 °CT_L = 40 °CQ_H = 3200 kJ

W_max = kJ

6.Heat engines & refrigeratorsHard

Two Carnot engines work in series. Engine A receives heat from a reservoir at 800 °C and rejects heat to an intermediate reservoir at temperature T_m. Engine B takes all that heat and rejects heat to a reservoir at 25 °C. Both engines have the same thermal efficiency. Find T_m in °C.

T_H = 800 °CT_L = 25 °C

T_m = °C

7.Gas power cyclesMedium

An ideal Diesel cycle has a compression ratio r = 19 and a cutoff ratio r_c = v₃/v₂ = 2.2. At the start of compression the air is at 300 K. Use the cold-air-standard assumptions: air is an ideal gas with constant specific heats, k = 1.4, c_p = 1.005 kJ/(kg·K) and c_v = 0.718 kJ/(kg·K). Find the heat added q_in per kilogram of air, in kJ/kg.

r = 19r_c = 2.2T₁ = 300 Kk = 1.4c_p = 1.005 kJ/(kg·K)

q_in = kJ/kg

8.Gas power cyclesHard

A gas-turbine plant runs on a Brayton cycle with a compressor pressure ratio of 12. Air enters the compressor at 295 K and the turbine at 1300 K. The compressor has an isentropic efficiency of 80% and the turbine 88%. Use the cold-air-standard assumptions: air is an ideal gas with constant specific heats, k = 1.4, c_p = 1.005 kJ/(kg·K) and c_v = 0.718 kJ/(kg·K). Find the net work output w_net per kilogram of air, in kJ/kg.

r_p = 12T₁ = 295 KT₃ = 1300 Kη_c = 80%η_t = 88%k = 1.4c_p = 1.005 kJ/(kg·K)

w_net = kJ/kg

3Solutions

1.Ideal gas law

Answer: V = 32.43 L

Ideal gas law: PV = nRT, with n = m/M.

Moles

n = 100/28.01 = 3.57 mol

T = 0 + 273.15 = 273.1 K

Volume

V = nRT/P = 3.57·8.314·273.1/250 = 32.43 L

Answer

V = 32.43 L

2.Ideal gas law

Answer: ρ = 5.566 kg/m³

Ideal gas density: ρ = PM/(RT).

Rearrange the gas law

PV = (m/M)RT → ρ = m/V = PM/(RT)

T = 90 + 273.15 = 363.1 K

Density

ρ = 600·28.01/(8.314·363.1) = 5.566 kg/m³

Answer

ρ = 5.566 kg/m³

3.Energy balance

Answer: t_out = 134.8 °C

Exchanger energy balance: with no losses, ṁ_hc_p,h(T_h,in − T_h,out) = ṁ_cc_p,c(t_out − t_in).

Heat released by the hot stream

Q = 2·3.6·(170 − 70) = 720 kW

Heat picked up by the water

t_out = t_in + Q/(ṁ_cc_p,c) = 20 + 720/(1.5·4.18) = 134.8 °C

Answer

t_out = 134.8 °C

4.Energy balance

Answer: ṁ_c = 1.15 kg/s

Energy balance with losses: heat released = heat absorbed + heat lost.

Heat released

Q_h = 2.5·2.1·(170 − 100) = 367.5 kW

Heat that reaches the water

Q_c = (1 − 0.15)·367.5 = 312.4 kW

Water flow rate

ṁ_c = Q_c/(c_p,c·Δt) = 312.4/(4.18·65) = 1.15 kg/s

Answer

ṁ_c = 1.15 kg/s

5.Heat engines & refrigerators

Answer: W_max = 1525 kJ

Second-law limits: no cycle working between reservoirs at absolute temperatures T_H and T_L can beat the reversible (Carnot) cycle: η_max = 1 − T_L/T_H, COP_R,max = T_L/(T_H − T_L) and COP_HP,max = T_H/(T_H − T_L). Energy is always conserved: Q_H = W + Q_L.

Absolute temperatures

T_H = 325 + 273.15 = 598.1 K

T_L = 40 + 273.15 = 313.1 K

Carnot efficiency

η_max = 1 − T_L/T_H = 1 − 313.1/598.1 = 47.65 %

Maximum work

W_max = η_max·Q_H = 0.4765·3200 = 1525 kJ

Answer

W_max = 1525 kJ

6.Heat engines & refrigerators

Answer: T_m = 292.5 °C

Absolute temperatures

T_H = 800 + 273.15 = 1073 K

T_L = 25 + 273.15 = 298.1 K

Equal efficiencies

1 − T_m/T_H = 1 − T_L/T_m gives T_m² = T_H·T_L.

T_m = √(1073·298.1) = 565.6 K = 292.5 °C

Answer

T_m = 292.5 °C

7.Gas power cycles

Answer: q_in = 1175 kJ/kg

Diesel cycle (compression-ignition engine): 1→2 isentropic compression, 2→3 heat addition at constant pressure, 3→4 isentropic expansion, 4→1 heat rejection at constant volume. With compression ratio r = v₁/v₂ and cutoff ratio r_c = v₃/v₂: T₂ = T₁·r^k−1, T₃ = r_c·T₂, q_in = c_p·(T₃ − T₂) and η = 1 − (1/r^k−1)·(r_c^k − 1)/(k·(r_c − 1)).

Temperatures

T₂ = 300·19^0.4 = 974.1 K

T₃ = 2.2·974.1 = 2143 K

Heat added at constant pressure

q_in = 1.005·(2143 − 974.1) = 1175 kJ/kg

Answer

q_in = 1175 kJ/kg

8.Gas power cycles

Answer: w_net = 201.3 kJ/kg

Brayton cycle (gas turbine): 1→2 isentropic compression, 2→3 heat addition at constant pressure, 3→4 isentropic expansion in the turbine, 4→1 heat rejection at constant pressure. With pressure ratio r_p = P₂/P₁: T₂ = T₁·r_p^(k−1)/k, T₄ = T₃/r_p^(k−1)/k and η = 1 − 1/r_p^(k−1)/k. Net work w = c_p·[(T₃ − T₄) − (T₂ − T₁)]. With isentropic efficiencies, the compressor needs w_s/η_c and the turbine gives η_t·w_s.

Isentropic temperatures

T_2s = 295·12^0.2857 = 600 K

T_4s = 1300/12^0.2857 = 639.2 K

Compressor and turbine work

w_c = 1.005·(600 − 295)/0.8 = 383.2 kJ/kg

w_t = 0.88·1.005·(1300 − 639.2) = 584.5 kJ/kg

Net work

w_net = 584.5 − 383.2 = 201.3 kJ/kg

Answer

w_net = 201.3 kJ/kg

Back-work ratio: w_c/w_t = 65.56%.

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