Thermodynamics 1: cram pack

Formula sheets, the key method steps for every topic and 8 practice problems, with full solutions at the back.

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1Formulas and methods

Ideal gas law

Ideal gas law: pV = nRT
Gas constant: R = 8.314 J/(mol·K)
Combined gas law: p₁V₁/T₁ = p₂V₂/T₂
Moles: n = m/M
Temperature: T[K] = T[°C] + 273.15

Energy balance

Sensible heat: Q = ṁ·c_p·ΔT
Latent heat: Q = ṁ·h_fg
Mixing: Σṁc_pT_in = Σṁc_pT_out
Water: c_p ≈ 4.18 kJ/(kg·K)

Heat engines & refrigerators

Efficiency: η = W/Q_H = 1 − Q_C/Q_H
Carnot efficiency: η_C = 1 − T_C/T_H (kelvin)
Refrigerator COP: COP_R = Q_C/W
Heat pump COP: COP_HP = Q_H/W = COP_R + 1
Energy balance: Q_H = W + Q_C

Gas power cycles

Isentropic, volume ratio: T₂/T₁ = r^k−1
Isentropic, pressure ratio: T₂/T₁ = r_p^(k−1)/k
Otto efficiency: η = 1 − 1/r^k−1
Diesel efficiency: η = 1 − (1/r^k−1)·(r_c^k − 1)/(k(r_c − 1))
Brayton efficiency: η = 1 − 1/r_p^(k−1)/k
Heat added: Otto: c_v(T₃ − T₂) Diesel, Brayton: c_p(T₃ − T₂)
Brayton net work: w = c_p[(T₃ − T₄) − (T₂ − T₁)]
Isentropic efficiencies: w_c = w_c,s/η_c, w_t = η_t·w_t,s
Cold air: k = 1.4, c_p = 1.005, c_v = 0.718 kJ/(kg·K)

2Practice problems

1.Ideal gas lawMedium

What volume V does 340 g of N₂ occupy at 600 kPa and 40 °C? Treat it as an ideal gas.

m = 340 gM = 28.01 g/molP = 600 kPaT = 40 °CR = 8.314 J/(mol·K)

V = L

2.Ideal gas lawHard

A fixed amount of O₂ goes from 200 kPa, 2 L, 40 °C to 200 kPa and 130 °C. Find the new volume V₂.

P₁ = 200 kPaV₁ = 2 LT₁ = 40 °CP₂ = 200 kPaT₂ = 130 °C

V₂ = L

3.Energy balanceMedium

Hot light oil cools water in a counter-flow heat exchanger with no heat loss. Find the water outlet temperature t_out.

ṁ_h = 3 kg/sc_p,h = 2.1 kJ/(kg·K)T_h: 160 → 90 °Cṁ_c = 1 kg/sc_p,c = 4.18 kJ/(kg·K)t_in = 25 °C

t_out = °C

4.Energy balanceHard

Hot ethanol heats water in an exchanger that loses 15% of the heat released by the hot stream to the surroundings. Find the water flow rate ṁ_c needed.

ṁ_h = 1 kg/sc_p,h = 2.44 kJ/(kg·K)T_h: 180 → 120 °Ct: 15 → 40 °Cc_p,c = 4.18 kJ/(kg·K)loss = 15 %

ṁ_c = kg/s

5.Heat engines & refrigeratorsMedium

A heat engine works between a hot reservoir at 775 °C and a cold reservoir at 25 °C. Find the highest possible thermal efficiency η_max.

T_H = 775 °CT_L = 25 °C

η_max = %

6.Heat engines & refrigeratorsHard

A refrigerator keeps its cold space at -18 °C in a kitchen at 35 °C, removing heat from the cold space at 4.5 kW. Find the highest possible coefficient of performance COP_max.

T_H = 35 °CT_L = -18 °CQ̇_L = 4.5 kW

COP_max =

7.Gas power cyclesMedium

An ideal Diesel cycle has a compression ratio r = 19 and a cutoff ratio r_c = v₃/v₂ = 2. At the start of compression the air is at 295 K. Use the cold-air-standard assumptions: air is an ideal gas with constant specific heats, k = 1.4, c_p = 1.005 kJ/(kg·K) and c_v = 0.718 kJ/(kg·K). Find the heat added q_in per kilogram of air, in kJ/kg.

r = 19r_c = 2T₁ = 295 Kk = 1.4c_p = 1.005 kJ/(kg·K)

q_in = kJ/kg

8.Gas power cyclesHard

An ideal Brayton cycle operates with a compressor pressure ratio of 14. Use the cold-air-standard assumptions: air is an ideal gas with constant specific heats, k = 1.4, c_p = 1.005 kJ/(kg·K) and c_v = 0.718 kJ/(kg·K). Find its thermal efficiency η in percent.

r_p = 14k = 1.4

η = %

3Solutions

1.Ideal gas law

Answer: V = 52.67 L

Ideal gas law: PV = nRT, with n = m/M.

Moles

n = 340/28.01 = 12.14 mol

T = 40 + 273.15 = 313.1 K

Volume

V = nRT/P = 12.14·8.314·313.1/600 = 52.67 L

Answer

V = 52.67 L

2.Ideal gas law

Answer: V₂ = 2.575 L

Combined gas law: for a fixed amount of ideal gas, P₁V₁/T₁ = P₂V₂/T₂.

Absolute temperatures

T₁ = 313.1 K, T₂ = 403.1 K

Combined gas law

V₂ = V₁·(P₁/P₂)·(T₂/T₁) = 2·(200/200)·(403.1/313.1) = 2.575 L

Answer

V₂ = 2.575 L

3.Energy balance

Answer: t_out = 130.5 °C

Exchanger energy balance: with no losses, ṁ_hc_p,h(T_h,in − T_h,out) = ṁ_cc_p,c(t_out − t_in).

Heat released by the hot stream

Q = 3·2.1·(160 − 90) = 441 kW

Heat picked up by the water

t_out = t_in + Q/(ṁ_cc_p,c) = 25 + 441/(1·4.18) = 130.5 °C

Answer

t_out = 130.5 °C

4.Energy balance

Answer: ṁ_c = 1.191 kg/s

Energy balance with losses: heat released = heat absorbed + heat lost.

Heat released

Q_h = 1·2.44·(180 − 120) = 146.4 kW

Heat that reaches the water

Q_c = (1 − 0.15)·146.4 = 124.4 kW

Water flow rate

ṁ_c = Q_c/(c_p,c·Δt) = 124.4/(4.18·25) = 1.191 kg/s

Answer

ṁ_c = 1.191 kg/s

5.Heat engines & refrigerators

Answer: η_max = 71.55 %

Second-law limits: no cycle working between reservoirs at absolute temperatures T_H and T_L can beat the reversible (Carnot) cycle: η_max = 1 − T_L/T_H, COP_R,max = T_L/(T_H − T_L) and COP_HP,max = T_H/(T_H − T_L). Energy is always conserved: Q_H = W + Q_L.

Absolute temperatures

T_H = 775 + 273.15 = 1048 K

T_L = 25 + 273.15 = 298.1 K

Carnot efficiency

η_max = 1 − T_L/T_H = 1 − 298.1/1048 = 71.55 %

Answer

η_max = 71.55 %

6.Heat engines & refrigerators

Answer: COP_max = 4.814

Absolute temperatures

T_H = 35 + 273.15 = 308.1 K

T_L = -18 + 273.15 = 255.1 K

Best possible COP

COP_R,max = T_L/(T_H − T_L) = 255.1/(308.1 − 255.1) = 4.814

Answer

COP_max = 4.814

7.Gas power cycles

Answer: q_in = 962.7 kJ/kg

Diesel cycle (compression-ignition engine): 1→2 isentropic compression, 2→3 heat addition at constant pressure, 3→4 isentropic expansion, 4→1 heat rejection at constant volume. With compression ratio r = v₁/v₂ and cutoff ratio r_c = v₃/v₂: T₂ = T₁·r^k−1, T₃ = r_c·T₂, q_in = c_p·(T₃ − T₂) and η = 1 − (1/r^k−1)·(r_c^k − 1)/(k·(r_c − 1)).

Temperatures

T₂ = 295·19^0.4 = 957.9 K

T₃ = 2·957.9 = 1916 K

Heat added at constant pressure

q_in = 1.005·(1916 − 957.9) = 962.7 kJ/kg

Answer

q_in = 962.7 kJ/kg

8.Gas power cycles

Answer: η = 52.95 %

Brayton cycle (gas turbine): 1→2 isentropic compression, 2→3 heat addition at constant pressure, 3→4 isentropic expansion in the turbine, 4→1 heat rejection at constant pressure. With pressure ratio r_p = P₂/P₁: T₂ = T₁·r_p^(k−1)/k, T₄ = T₃/r_p^(k−1)/k and η = 1 − 1/r_p^(k−1)/k. Net work w = c_p·[(T₃ − T₄) − (T₂ − T₁)]. With isentropic efficiencies, the compressor needs w_s/η_c and the turbine gives η_t·w_s.

Thermal efficiency

η = 1 − 1/14^0.2857 = 1 − 1/2.126 = 52.95%

Answer

η = 52.95%

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