Thermodynamics 1: cram pack

Formula sheets, the key method steps for every topic and 8 practice problems, with full solutions at the back.

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1Formulas and methods

Ideal gas law

Ideal gas law: pV = nRT
Gas constant: R = 8.314 J/(mol·K)
Combined gas law: p₁V₁/T₁ = p₂V₂/T₂
Moles: n = m/M
Temperature: T[K] = T[°C] + 273.15

Energy balance

Sensible heat: Q = ṁ·c_p·ΔT
Latent heat: Q = ṁ·h_fg
Mixing: Σṁc_pT_in = Σṁc_pT_out
Water: c_p ≈ 4.18 kJ/(kg·K)

Heat engines & refrigerators

Efficiency: η = W/Q_H = 1 − Q_C/Q_H
Carnot efficiency: η_C = 1 − T_C/T_H (kelvin)
Refrigerator COP: COP_R = Q_C/W
Heat pump COP: COP_HP = Q_H/W = COP_R + 1
Energy balance: Q_H = W + Q_C

Gas power cycles

Isentropic, volume ratio: T₂/T₁ = r^k−1
Isentropic, pressure ratio: T₂/T₁ = r_p^(k−1)/k
Otto efficiency: η = 1 − 1/r^k−1
Diesel efficiency: η = 1 − (1/r^k−1)·(r_c^k − 1)/(k(r_c − 1))
Brayton efficiency: η = 1 − 1/r_p^(k−1)/k
Heat added: Otto: c_v(T₃ − T₂) Diesel, Brayton: c_p(T₃ − T₂)
Brayton net work: w = c_p[(T₃ − T₄) − (T₂ − T₁)]
Isentropic efficiencies: w_c = w_c,s/η_c, w_t = η_t·w_t,s
Cold air: k = 1.4, c_p = 1.005, c_v = 0.718 kJ/(kg·K)

2Practice problems

1.Ideal gas lawMedium

What volume V does 60 g of O₂ occupy at 450 kPa and 15 °C? Treat it as an ideal gas.

m = 60 gM = 32 g/molP = 450 kPaT = 15 °CR = 8.314 J/(mol·K)

V = L

2.Ideal gas lawHard

A fixed amount of CH₄ goes from 300 kPa, 2 L, 10 °C to 500 kPa and 250 °C. Find the new volume V₂.

P₁ = 300 kPaV₁ = 2 LT₁ = 10 °CP₂ = 500 kPaT₂ = 250 °C

V₂ = L

3.Energy balanceMedium

Hot light oil cools water in a counter-flow heat exchanger with no heat loss. Find the water outlet temperature t_out.

ṁ_h = 3 kg/sc_p,h = 2.1 kJ/(kg·K)T_h: 130 → 90 °Cṁ_c = 3 kg/sc_p,c = 4.18 kJ/(kg·K)t_in = 20 °C

t_out = °C

4.Energy balanceHard

Hot glycol mix heats water in an exchanger that loses 5% of the heat released by the hot stream to the surroundings. Find the water flow rate ṁ_c needed.

ṁ_h = 3 kg/sc_p,h = 3.6 kJ/(kg·K)T_h: 180 → 130 °Ct: 20 → 65 °Cc_p,c = 4.18 kJ/(kg·K)loss = 5 %

ṁ_c = kg/s

5.Heat engines & refrigeratorsMedium

A reversible (Carnot) heat engine takes in 1200 kJ of heat from a reservoir at 275 °C and rejects 609 kJ per cycle. Find the temperature T_L of the cold reservoir in °C.

T_H = 275 °CQ_H = 1200 kJQ_L = 609 kJ

T_L = °C

6.Heat engines & refrigeratorsHard

A refrigerator keeps its cold space at -10 °C in a kitchen at 35 °C, removing heat from the cold space at 5 kW. Find the highest possible coefficient of performance COP_max.

T_H = 35 °CT_L = -10 °CQ̇_L = 5 kW

COP_max =

7.Gas power cyclesMedium

An ideal Diesel cycle has a compression ratio r = 19 and a cutoff ratio r_c = v₃/v₂ = 1.5. At the start of compression the air is at 300 K. Use the cold-air-standard assumptions: air is an ideal gas with constant specific heats, k = 1.4, c_p = 1.005 kJ/(kg·K) and c_v = 0.718 kJ/(kg·K). Find the heat added q_in per kilogram of air, in kJ/kg.

r = 19r_c = 1.5T₁ = 300 Kk = 1.4c_p = 1.005 kJ/(kg·K)

q_in = kJ/kg

8.Gas power cyclesHard

A gas-turbine plant runs on a Brayton cycle with a compressor pressure ratio of 8. Air enters the compressor at 288 K and the turbine at 1200 K. Both machines are isentropic. Use the cold-air-standard assumptions: air is an ideal gas with constant specific heats, k = 1.4, c_p = 1.005 kJ/(kg·K) and c_v = 0.718 kJ/(kg·K). Find the net work output w_net per kilogram of air, in kJ/kg.

r_p = 8T₁ = 288 KT₃ = 1200 Kk = 1.4c_p = 1.005 kJ/(kg·K)

w_net = kJ/kg

3Solutions

1.Ideal gas law

Answer: V = 9.982 L

Ideal gas law: PV = nRT, with n = m/M.

Moles

n = 60/32 = 1.875 mol

T = 15 + 273.15 = 288.1 K

Volume

V = nRT/P = 1.875·8.314·288.1/450 = 9.982 L

Answer

V = 9.982 L

2.Ideal gas law

Answer: V₂ = 2.217 L

Combined gas law: for a fixed amount of ideal gas, P₁V₁/T₁ = P₂V₂/T₂.

Absolute temperatures

T₁ = 283.1 K, T₂ = 523.1 K

Combined gas law

V₂ = V₁·(P₁/P₂)·(T₂/T₁) = 2·(300/500)·(523.1/283.1) = 2.217 L

Answer

V₂ = 2.217 L

3.Energy balance

Answer: t_out = 40.1 °C

Exchanger energy balance: with no losses, ṁ_hc_p,h(T_h,in − T_h,out) = ṁ_cc_p,c(t_out − t_in).

Heat released by the hot stream

Q = 3·2.1·(130 − 90) = 252 kW

Heat picked up by the water

t_out = t_in + Q/(ṁ_cc_p,c) = 20 + 252/(3·4.18) = 40.1 °C

Answer

t_out = 40.1 °C

4.Energy balance

Answer: ṁ_c = 2.727 kg/s

Energy balance with losses: heat released = heat absorbed + heat lost.

Heat released

Q_h = 3·3.6·(180 − 130) = 540 kW

Heat that reaches the water

Q_c = (1 − 0.05)·540 = 513 kW

Water flow rate

ṁ_c = Q_c/(c_p,c·Δt) = 513/(4.18·45) = 2.727 kg/s

Answer

ṁ_c = 2.727 kg/s

5.Heat engines & refrigerators

Answer: T_L = 5.036 °C

Second-law limits: no cycle working between reservoirs at absolute temperatures T_H and T_L can beat the reversible (Carnot) cycle: η_max = 1 − T_L/T_H, COP_R,max = T_L/(T_H − T_L) and COP_HP,max = T_H/(T_H − T_L). Energy is always conserved: Q_H = W + Q_L.

Absolute temperature of the source

T_H = 275 + 273.15 = 548.1 K

Reversible heat ratio

T_L = T_H·Q_L/Q_H = 548.1·609/1200 = 278.2 K = 5.036 °C

Answer

T_L = 5.036 °C

6.Heat engines & refrigerators

Answer: COP_max = 5.848

Absolute temperatures

T_H = 35 + 273.15 = 308.1 K

T_L = -10 + 273.15 = 263.1 K

Best possible COP

COP_R,max = T_L/(T_H − T_L) = 263.1/(308.1 − 263.1) = 5.848

Answer

COP_max = 5.848

7.Gas power cycles

Answer: q_in = 489.5 kJ/kg

Diesel cycle (compression-ignition engine): 1→2 isentropic compression, 2→3 heat addition at constant pressure, 3→4 isentropic expansion, 4→1 heat rejection at constant volume. With compression ratio r = v₁/v₂ and cutoff ratio r_c = v₃/v₂: T₂ = T₁·r^k−1, T₃ = r_c·T₂, q_in = c_p·(T₃ − T₂) and η = 1 − (1/r^k−1)·(r_c^k − 1)/(k·(r_c − 1)).

Temperatures

T₂ = 300·19^0.4 = 974.1 K

T₃ = 1.5·974.1 = 1461 K

Heat added at constant pressure

q_in = 1.005·(1461 − 974.1) = 489.5 kJ/kg

Answer

q_in = 489.5 kJ/kg

8.Gas power cycles

Answer: w_net = 305.4 kJ/kg

Brayton cycle (gas turbine): 1→2 isentropic compression, 2→3 heat addition at constant pressure, 3→4 isentropic expansion in the turbine, 4→1 heat rejection at constant pressure. With pressure ratio r_p = P₂/P₁: T₂ = T₁·r_p^(k−1)/k, T₄ = T₃/r_p^(k−1)/k and η = 1 − 1/r_p^(k−1)/k. Net work w = c_p·[(T₃ − T₄) − (T₂ − T₁)]. With isentropic efficiencies, the compressor needs w_s/η_c and the turbine gives η_t·w_s.

Isentropic temperatures

T₂ = 288·8^0.2857 = 521.7 K

T₄ = 1200/8^0.2857 = 662.5 K

Compressor and turbine work

w_c = 1.005·(521.7 − 288) = 234.9 kJ/kg

w_t = 1.005·(1200 − 662.5) = 540.2 kJ/kg

Net work

w_net = 540.2 − 234.9 = 305.4 kJ/kg

Answer

w_net = 305.4 kJ/kg

Back-work ratio: w_c/w_t = 43.47%.

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