Springs & pendulums
- Mass on a spring
- T = 2π·√(m/k)
- Pendulum
- T = 2π·√(L/g)
- Angular frequency
- ω = √(k/m) = 2π/T
- Maximum speed and acceleration
- vmax = A·ω, amax = A·ω²
- Energy
- E = ½·k·A²
Waves and Optics: cram pack
Formula sheets, the key method steps for every topic and 4 practice problems, with full solutions at the back.
1Formulas and methods
Waves, sound & optics
- Wave speed
- v = fλ, T = 1/f
- String
- v = √(T/μ), μ = m/L
- Sound level
- β = 10·log10(I/I0), I0 = 10⁻¹² W/m²
- Point source
- I = P/(4πr²)
- Standing waves
- string or open pipe fn = n·v/(2L); closed pipe fn = n·v/(4L), n odd
- Doppler effect
- f′ = f·(v ± vo)/(v ∓ vs)
- Refractive index
- n = c/v, λ = λ0/n
- Snell’s law
- n1sin θ1 = n2sin θ2
- Critical angle
- sin θc = n2/n1
- Optical fibre
- NA = sin θa = √(n1² − n2²)
- Lenses and mirrors
- 1/f = 1/do + 1/di, m = −di/do, mirror f = R/2
- Double slit
- d·sin θ = mλ, ym = mλL/d
- Grating
- d = 1/N, d·sin θ = mλ, mmax ≤ d/λ
- Single slit
- a·sin θ = mλ (dark), w = 2λL/a
Method
- Identify the kind of problem: wave speed, sound level, standing wave, Doppler, refraction, lens or mirror, or interference.
- Write the relation first: v = fλ, β = 10·log(I/I₀), fₙ = n·v/(2L) or n·v/(4L), f′ = f(v ± vo)/(v ∓ vs), n₁sin θ₁ = n₂sin θ₂, 1/f = 1/d₀ + 1/dᵢ, d·sin θ = mλ.
- Convert units: nm, mm and cm to m, and check whether angles are measured from the normal.
- Check signs and plausibility: a virtual image has dᵢ < 0, an approaching source sounds higher, a closed pipe has only odd harmonics.
2Practice problems
1.Springs & pendulumsMedium
How long must a simple pendulum be to have a period of 2.4 s? Use g = 9.81 m/s². Find L.
T = 2.4 sg = 9.81 m/s²
L = m
2.Springs & pendulumsHard
A 0.2 kg mass on a spring with k = 200 N/m is pulled 14 cm from equilibrium and released. Find its maximum acceleration amax.
m = 0.2 kgk = 200 N/mA = 14 cm
amax = m/s²
3.Waves, sound & opticsMedium
An object 1.5 cm tall stands 40 cm in front of a thin converging lens with a focal length of 10 cm. Find the image height hi (negative for an inverted image).
ho = 1.5 cmdo = 40 cmf = 10 cm
hi = cm
4.Waves, sound & opticsHard
Two thin lenses share an axis, 25 cm apart: lens 1 with f₁ = 5 cm and lens 2 with f₂ = 10 cm. An object stands 12 cm in front of lens 1. Find the position di2 of the final image measured from lens 2 (positive beyond lens 2, real-is-positive convention).
f1 = 5 cmf2 = 10 cms = 25 cmdo = 12 cm
di2 = cm
3Solutions
1.Springs & pendulums
Answer: L = 1.431 m
Simple harmonic motion: a mass m on a spring of stiffness k oscillates with angular frequency ω = √(k/m) and period T = 2π/ω = 2π·√(m/k). A simple pendulum of length L has T = 2π·√(L/g). With amplitude A, the largest speed is A·ω, the largest acceleration A·ω² and the energy ½·k·A².
Solve for the length
L = g·(T/2π)² = 9.81·(2.4/2π)² = 1.431 m
Answer
L = 1.431 m
2.Springs & pendulums
Answer: amax = 140 m/s²
Simple harmonic motion: a mass m on a spring of stiffness k oscillates with angular frequency ω = √(k/m) and period T = 2π/ω = 2π·√(m/k). A simple pendulum of length L has T = 2π·√(L/g). With amplitude A, the largest speed is A·ω, the largest acceleration A·ω² and the energy ½·k·A².
Angular frequency
ω = √(200/0.2) = 31.62 rad/s
Maximum acceleration
amax = A·ω² = 0.14·31.62² = 140 m/s²
Answer
amax = 140 m/s²
3.Waves, sound & optics
Answer: hi = −0.5 cm
Geometric optics: at a boundary, n₁·sin θ₁ = n₂·sin θ₂ (Snell's law), with angles measured from the normal and n = c/v. Going into a slower medium the ray bends towards the normal. From a denser medium (n₁ > n₂) beyond the critical angle θc = arcsin(n₂/n₁) all light is reflected: total internal reflection. Thin lenses and spherical mirrors obey 1/f = 1/do + 1/di with the magnification m = −di/do. Sign convention: f > 0 for a converging lens and a concave mirror (f = R/2), f < 0 for a diverging lens and a convex mirror; di > 0 for a real image, di < 0 for a virtual one, and m < 0 for an inverted image.
Thin-lens equation
1/di = 1/f − 1/do = 1/10 − 1/40
di = 13.33 cm
Magnification and height
m = −13.33/40 = −0.3333
hi = −0.3333·1.5 = −0.5 cm
Answer
hi = −0.5 cm
4.Waves, sound & optics
Answer: di2 = 25.56 cm
Geometric optics: at a boundary, n₁·sin θ₁ = n₂·sin θ₂ (Snell's law), with angles measured from the normal and n = c/v. Going into a slower medium the ray bends towards the normal. From a denser medium (n₁ > n₂) beyond the critical angle θc = arcsin(n₂/n₁) all light is reflected: total internal reflection. Thin lenses and spherical mirrors obey 1/f = 1/do + 1/di with the magnification m = −di/do. Sign convention: f > 0 for a converging lens and a concave mirror (f = R/2), f < 0 for a diverging lens and a convex mirror; di > 0 for a real image, di < 0 for a virtual one, and m < 0 for an inverted image.
Image of lens 1
1/di1 = 1/5 − 1/12 → di1 = 8.571 cm
Object for lens 2
do2 = 25 − 8.571 = 16.43 cm
Final image
1/di2 = 1/10 − 1/16.43 → di2 = 25.56 cm
Answer
di2 = 25.56 cm
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