Springs & pendulums
- Mass on a spring
- T = 2π·√(m/k)
- Pendulum
- T = 2π·√(L/g)
- Angular frequency
- ω = √(k/m) = 2π/T
- Maximum speed and acceleration
- vmax = A·ω, amax = A·ω²
- Energy
- E = ½·k·A²
Waves and Optics: cram pack
Formula sheets, the key method steps for every topic and 4 practice problems, with full solutions at the back.
1Formulas and methods
Waves, sound & optics
- Wave speed
- v = fλ, T = 1/f
- String
- v = √(T/μ), μ = m/L
- Sound level
- β = 10·log10(I/I0), I0 = 10⁻¹² W/m²
- Point source
- I = P/(4πr²)
- Standing waves
- string or open pipe fn = n·v/(2L); closed pipe fn = n·v/(4L), n odd
- Doppler effect
- f′ = f·(v ± vo)/(v ∓ vs)
- Refractive index
- n = c/v, λ = λ0/n
- Snell’s law
- n1sin θ1 = n2sin θ2
- Critical angle
- sin θc = n2/n1
- Optical fibre
- NA = sin θa = √(n1² − n2²)
- Lenses and mirrors
- 1/f = 1/do + 1/di, m = −di/do, mirror f = R/2
- Double slit
- d·sin θ = mλ, ym = mλL/d
- Grating
- d = 1/N, d·sin θ = mλ, mmax ≤ d/λ
- Single slit
- a·sin θ = mλ (dark), w = 2λL/a
Method
- Identify the kind of problem: wave speed, sound level, standing wave, Doppler, refraction, lens or mirror, or interference.
- Write the relation first: v = fλ, β = 10·log(I/I₀), fₙ = n·v/(2L) or n·v/(4L), f′ = f(v ± vo)/(v ∓ vs), n₁sin θ₁ = n₂sin θ₂, 1/f = 1/d₀ + 1/dᵢ, d·sin θ = mλ.
- Convert units: nm, mm and cm to m, and check whether angles are measured from the normal.
- Check signs and plausibility: a virtual image has dᵢ < 0, an approaching source sounds higher, a closed pipe has only odd harmonics.
2Practice problems
1.Springs & pendulumsMedium
A 1.6 kg mass on a spring with k = 200 N/m is pulled 6 cm in the positive direction and released from rest at t = 0. Find its displacement x from equilibrium at t = 0.3 s (with sign).
m = 1.6 kgk = 200 N/mA = 6 cmt = 0.3 s
x = cm
2.Springs & pendulumsHard
A body oscillates in simple harmonic motion with period 1.1 s and amplitude 9 cm. What is the shortest time t it needs to move from equilibrium to a displacement of 6.3 cm?
T = 1.1 sA = 9 cmx = 6.3 cm
t = s
3.Waves, sound & opticsMedium
An object stands 8 cm in front of a thin converging lens with a focal length of 15 cm. Find the magnification m (negative for an inverted image).
do = 8 cmf = 15 cm
m =
4.Waves, sound & opticsHard
Two thin lenses share an axis, 60 cm apart: lens 1 with f₁ = 5 cm and lens 2 with f₂ = −20 cm. An object stands 20 cm in front of lens 1. Find the position di2 of the final image measured from lens 2 (positive beyond lens 2, real-is-positive convention).
f1 = 5 cmf2 = −20 cms = 60 cmdo = 20 cm
di2 = cm
3Solutions
1.Springs & pendulums
Answer: x = −5.865 cm
Simple harmonic motion: a mass m on a spring of stiffness k oscillates with angular frequency ω = √(k/m) and period T = 2π/ω = 2π·√(m/k). A simple pendulum of length L has T = 2π·√(L/g). With amplitude A, the largest speed is A·ω, the largest acceleration A·ω² and the energy ½·k·A².
Angular frequency
ω = √(200/1.6) = 11.18 rad/s
ω·t = 11.18·0.3 = 3.354 rad
Displacement
x = A·cos(ω·t) = 6·cos(3.354) = −5.865 cm
Answer
x = −5.865 cm
2.Springs & pendulums
Answer: t = 0.1357 s
Simple harmonic motion: a mass m on a spring of stiffness k oscillates with angular frequency ω = √(k/m) and period T = 2π/ω = 2π·√(m/k). A simple pendulum of length L has T = 2π·√(L/g). With amplitude A, the largest speed is A·ω, the largest acceleration A·ω² and the energy ½·k·A².
Angular frequency
ω = 2π/T = 2π/1.1 = 5.712 rad/s
Solve for the time
0.7 = sin(ω·t) → ω·t = arcsin(0.7) = 0.7754 rad
t = 0.7754/5.712 = 0.1357 s
Answer
t = 0.1357 s
3.Waves, sound & optics
Answer: m = 2.143
Geometric optics: at a boundary, n₁·sin θ₁ = n₂·sin θ₂ (Snell's law), with angles measured from the normal and n = c/v. Going into a slower medium the ray bends towards the normal. From a denser medium (n₁ > n₂) beyond the critical angle θc = arcsin(n₂/n₁) all light is reflected: total internal reflection. Thin lenses and spherical mirrors obey 1/f = 1/do + 1/di with the magnification m = −di/do. Sign convention: f > 0 for a converging lens and a concave mirror (f = R/2), f < 0 for a diverging lens and a convex mirror; di > 0 for a real image, di < 0 for a virtual one, and m < 0 for an inverted image.
Thin-lens equation
1/di = 1/f − 1/do = 1/15 − 1/8
di = −17.14 cm
Magnification
m = −di/do = −(−17.14)/8 = 2.143
Answer
m = 2.143
4.Waves, sound & optics
Answer: di2 = −14.55 cm
Geometric optics: at a boundary, n₁·sin θ₁ = n₂·sin θ₂ (Snell's law), with angles measured from the normal and n = c/v. Going into a slower medium the ray bends towards the normal. From a denser medium (n₁ > n₂) beyond the critical angle θc = arcsin(n₂/n₁) all light is reflected: total internal reflection. Thin lenses and spherical mirrors obey 1/f = 1/do + 1/di with the magnification m = −di/do. Sign convention: f > 0 for a converging lens and a concave mirror (f = R/2), f < 0 for a diverging lens and a convex mirror; di > 0 for a real image, di < 0 for a virtual one, and m < 0 for an inverted image.
Image of lens 1
1/di1 = 1/5 − 1/20 → di1 = 6.667 cm
Object for lens 2
do2 = 60 − 6.667 = 53.33 cm
Final image
1/di2 = 1/(−20) − 1/53.33 → di2 = −14.55 cm
Answer
di2 = −14.55 cm
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