Springs & pendulums
- Mass on a spring
- T = 2π·√(m/k)
- Pendulum
- T = 2π·√(L/g)
- Angular frequency
- ω = √(k/m) = 2π/T
- Maximum speed and acceleration
- vmax = A·ω, amax = A·ω²
- Energy
- E = ½·k·A²
Waves and Optics: cram pack
Formula sheets, the key method steps for every topic and 4 practice problems, with full solutions at the back.
1Formulas and methods
Waves, sound & optics
- Wave speed
- v = fλ, T = 1/f
- String
- v = √(T/μ), μ = m/L
- Sound level
- β = 10·log10(I/I0), I0 = 10⁻¹² W/m²
- Point source
- I = P/(4πr²)
- Standing waves
- string or open pipe fn = n·v/(2L); closed pipe fn = n·v/(4L), n odd
- Doppler effect
- f′ = f·(v ± vo)/(v ∓ vs)
- Refractive index
- n = c/v, λ = λ0/n
- Snell’s law
- n1sin θ1 = n2sin θ2
- Critical angle
- sin θc = n2/n1
- Optical fibre
- NA = sin θa = √(n1² − n2²)
- Lenses and mirrors
- 1/f = 1/do + 1/di, m = −di/do, mirror f = R/2
- Double slit
- d·sin θ = mλ, ym = mλL/d
- Grating
- d = 1/N, d·sin θ = mλ, mmax ≤ d/λ
- Single slit
- a·sin θ = mλ (dark), w = 2λL/a
Method
- Identify the kind of problem: wave speed, sound level, standing wave, Doppler, refraction, lens or mirror, or interference.
- Write the relation first: v = fλ, β = 10·log(I/I₀), fₙ = n·v/(2L) or n·v/(4L), f′ = f(v ± vo)/(v ∓ vs), n₁sin θ₁ = n₂sin θ₂, 1/f = 1/d₀ + 1/dᵢ, d·sin θ = mλ.
- Convert units: nm, mm and cm to m, and check whether angles are measured from the normal.
- Check signs and plausibility: a virtual image has dᵢ < 0, an approaching source sounds higher, a closed pipe has only odd harmonics.
2Practice problems
1.Springs & pendulumsMedium
A simple pendulum has a length of 1.5 m. Use g = 9.81 m/s². Find its period T for small swings.
L = 1.5 mg = 9.81 m/s²
T = s
2.Springs & pendulumsHard
An 8 g bullet moving at 150 m/s hits and stays in a 0.5 kg block resting on a frictionless surface. The block is attached to a horizontal spring with k = 1100 N/m. Find the amplitude A of the resulting oscillation in cm.
m = 8 gv = 150 m/sM = 0.5 kgk = 1100 N/m
A = cm
3.Waves, sound & opticsMedium
Light travels in diamond (n = 2.42) towards a flat boundary with water (n = 1.33). Find the critical angle θc beyond which it is totally reflected.
n1 = 2.42n2 = 1.33
θc = °
4.Waves, sound & opticsHard
Light of wavelength 589 nm falls on two slits 0.3 mm apart. The screen is 2.5 m away. Find the distance y2 from the central bright fringe to bright fringe number 2.
λ = 589 nmd = 0.3 mmL = 2.5 mm = 2
y2 = mm
3Solutions
1.Springs & pendulums
Answer: T = 2.457 s
Simple harmonic motion: a mass m on a spring of stiffness k oscillates with angular frequency ω = √(k/m) and period T = 2π/ω = 2π·√(m/k). A simple pendulum of length L has T = 2π·√(L/g). With amplitude A, the largest speed is A·ω, the largest acceleration A·ω² and the energy ½·k·A².
Pendulum period
T = 2π·√(1.5/9.81) = 2.457 s
Answer
T = 2.457 s
2.Springs & pendulums
Answer: A = 5.076 cm
Simple harmonic motion: a mass m on a spring of stiffness k oscillates with angular frequency ω = √(k/m) and period T = 2π/ω = 2π·√(m/k). A simple pendulum of length L has T = 2π·√(L/g). With amplitude A, the largest speed is A·ω, the largest acceleration A·ω² and the energy ½·k·A².
Speed after impact
V = m·v/(m + M) = 0.008·150/0.508 = 2.362 m/s
Angular frequency
ω = √(k/(m + M)) = √(1100/0.508) = 46.53 rad/s
Amplitude
A = V/ω = 2.362/46.53 = 0.05076 m = 5.076 cm
Answer
A = 5.076 cm
3.Waves, sound & optics
Answer: θc = 33.34 °
Geometric optics: at a boundary, n₁·sin θ₁ = n₂·sin θ₂ (Snell's law), with angles measured from the normal and n = c/v. Going into a slower medium the ray bends towards the normal. From a denser medium (n₁ > n₂) beyond the critical angle θc = arcsin(n₂/n₁) all light is reflected: total internal reflection. Thin lenses and spherical mirrors obey 1/f = 1/do + 1/di with the magnification m = −di/do. Sign convention: f > 0 for a converging lens and a concave mirror (f = R/2), f < 0 for a diverging lens and a convex mirror; di > 0 for a real image, di < 0 for a virtual one, and m < 0 for an inverted image.
Refraction at 90°
sin θc = n₂/n₁ = 1.33/2.42 = 0.5496
Critical angle
θc = arcsin(0.5496) = 33.34°
Answer
θc = 33.34°
4.Waves, sound & optics
Answer: y2 = 9.817 mm
Interference and diffraction: light from two slits a distance d apart reaches a point on the screen with a path difference d·sin θ. Bright fringes appear where d·sin θ = mλ (m = 0, ±1, ±2, …). For a screen at distance L ≫ d, the m-th bright fringe is at y = mλL/d and the fringe spacing is Δy = λL/d. A grating with N lines per millimetre has d = 1/N and sharp maxima at d·sin θ = mλ; since sin θ ≤ 1, the highest order is the largest whole number m ≤ d/λ. A single slit of width a has dark fringes at a·sin θ = mλ, m = ±1, ±2, …
Fringe spacing
Δy = λL/d = 589 × 10⁻⁹·2.5/(0.3 × 10⁻³) = 4.908 mm
Fringe number 2
y2 = 2·4.908 = 9.817 mm
Answer
y2 = 9.817 mm
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