动力学：速成包

匀变速直线运动：v = v₀ + a·t，s = v₀·t + ½·a·t²，v² = v₀² + 2·a·s。选择包含三个已知量和一个待求量的那个方程，并按同一个正方向统一符号。

Motion with constant acceleration: v = v₀ + a·t, s = v₀·t + ½·a·t² and v² = v₀² + 2·a·s. Pick the equation that contains the three things you know and the one you want, and keep the signs consistent with one positive direction.

Newton’s second law: the net force on a body equals its mass times its acceleration, ΣF = m·a. Draw a free-body diagram, choose a positive direction along the motion, and add every force in that direction: applied forces, friction μ·N against the motion, and the components of gravity.

牛顿第二定律：物体所受的合力等于其质量乘以加速度，ΣF = m·a。画出受力图，沿运动方向选定正方向，把该方向上的所有力相加：外加的力、与运动方向相反的摩擦力 μ·N，以及重力的分力。

抛体运动：无空气阻力时，x = v_xt，y = h + v_yt − ½gt²。两个方向相互独立，只共享同一时间。

Projectile motion: with no air resistance, x = v_xt and y = h + v_yt − ½gt². The two directions are independent except that they share the same time.

匀速圆周运动：物体以速率 v 在半径为 r 的圆周上运动时，具有指向圆心的加速度 a = v²/r，因此需要指向圆心的合力 F = m·v²/r。这个力必须由真实的力提供：摩擦力、张力、重力或支持力。

Uniform circular motion: an object moving at speed v on a circle of radius r accelerates towards the centre with a = v²/r, so it needs a net inward force F = m·v²/r. That force is supplied by something real: friction, tension, gravity or a normal force.

动能定理：动能的变化等于所有力做的功。把重力和弹簧写成势能（mgh 和 ½kx²）后得到能量衡算：初始能量 = 终了能量 + 摩擦损失的能量 (μN·d)。

动能定理：动能的变化等于所有力做的功。把重力和弹簧写成势能（mgh 和 ½kx²）后得到能量衡算：初始能量 = 终了能量 + 摩擦损失的能量 (μN·d)。

Conservation of momentum: when no external force acts during a collision, the total momentum Σm·v before equals the total after. Velocities have a direction, so pick a positive direction and give velocities the other way a minus sign. In an elastic collision kinetic energy is conserved too; in a perfectly inelastic one the bodies stick together.

Conservation of momentum: when no external force acts during a collision, the total momentum Σm·v before equals the total after. Velocities have a direction, so pick a positive direction and give velocities the other way a minus sign. In an elastic collision kinetic energy is conserved too; in a perfectly inelastic one the bodies stick together.

Rotation about a fixed axis: the sum of the moments about the axis equals I·α (ΣM = I·α), just as ΣF = m·a for translation. In energy form, a torque T turning through an angle θ (in radians) does work T·θ, which changes the kinetic energy ½·I·ω²; gravity adds or removes m·g·Δh of the centre of mass. Power is P = T·ω.

Rolling and angular momentum: a body rolling without slipping has v = ω·r, so its kinetic energy is ½·m·v² + ½·I·ω² = ½·m·v²·(1 + I/(m·r²)). Down a slope that gives a = g·sin θ/(1 + I/(m·r²)). When no external moment acts about an axis, the angular momentum about that axis stays constant, I₁·ω₁ = I₂·ω₂, even if kinetic energy is lost.

Gear geometry: the module m sets the tooth size. A gear with N teeth has a pitch diameter d = m·N, two meshing gears have the same module, and their centre distance is a = (d₁ + d₂)/2 = m·(N₁ + N₂)/2. The pitch-line speed is v = π·d·n/60, and the tangential tooth force follows from the torque: F_t = 2T/d.

皮带传动：无打滑时，两个带轮的轮缘线速度相同，v = π·d·n/60，所以 n₁·d₁ = n₂·d₂，速比为 d₂/d₁。打滑率 s 使从动轮稍慢：n₂ = n₁·(d₁/d₂)·(1 − s)。传递的功率为 P = (T₁ − T₂)·v，其中 T₁ 为紧边张力，T₂ 为松边张力。摩擦限制了张力之比：T₁/T₂ = e^μθ，其中 θ 是小带轮上的包角（弧度）；对开口皮带，θ = π − 2·asin((d₂ − d₁)/(2C))，C 为中心距。

简谐运动：质量为 m 的物体连在劲度系数为 k 的弹簧上，振动的角频率为 ω = √(k/m)，周期为 T = 2π/ω = 2π·√(m/k)。摆长为 L 的单摆周期为 T = 2π·√(L/g)。振幅为 A 时，最大速度为 A·ω，最大加速度为 A·ω²，能量为 ½·k·A²。

Simple harmonic motion: a mass m on a spring of stiffness k oscillates with angular frequency ω = √(k/m) and period T = 2π/ω = 2π·√(m/k). A simple pendulum of length L has T = 2π·√(L/g). With amplitude A, the largest speed is A·ω, the largest acceleration A·ω² and the energy ½·k·A².

质量–弹簧系统的自由振动：无阻尼固有角频率为 ω_n = √(k/m)（rad/s），f_n = ω_n/(2π)（Hz）。黏性阻尼器 c 给出阻尼比 ζ = c/c_c，其中临界阻尼 c_c = 2·√(k·m) = 2·m·ω_n。欠阻尼系统（ζ < 1）以 ω_d = ω_n·√(1 − ζ²) 振荡。并联弹簧刚度相加，k = k₁ + k₂；串联弹簧按倒数相加，1/k = 1/k₁ + 1/k₂。

质量–弹簧系统的自由振动：无阻尼固有角频率为 ω_n = √(k/m)（rad/s），f_n = ω_n/(2π)（Hz）。黏性阻尼器 c 给出阻尼比 ζ = c/c_c，其中临界阻尼 c_c = 2·√(k·m) = 2·m·ω_n。欠阻尼系统（ζ < 1）以 ω_d = ω_n·√(1 − ζ²) 振荡。并联弹簧刚度相加，k = k₁ + k₂；串联弹簧按倒数相加，1/k = 1/k₁ + 1/k₂。