内外科护理:心血管与呼吸
方法
- 说出问题所在:泵衰竭、动脉阻塞、节律、血栓、气道狭窄、感染或设备问题。
- 先检查危险征象:低氧、低血压、胸痛、新出现的意识模糊、冰冷无脉搏的肢体。
- 让氧疗与患者相匹配:大多数人为 94–98%,有 CO₂ 潴留风险者为 88–92%。
- 把每种药物与其检测和风险联系起来:华法林与 INR,肝素与 aPTT 和血小板,利尿剂与血钾。
- 选择安全的第一步措施,然后升级处理并重新评估。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 16 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
A patient with stable angina is afraid nicotine patches will harm their heart. Which reply is most accurate?
A patient with lung cancer develops swelling of the face and arms, distended neck and chest veins and breathlessness that is worse when bending forward. What is the most likely cause?
Which CSF result is most typical of bacterial meningitis?
A nurse teaches foot care to a patient with diabetic neuropathy. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
Which statement about pain in older adults is correct?
A patient who takes NSAIDs suddenly develops severe epigastric pain, a rigid abdomen and shoulder-tip pain. Which finding would most support the likely diagnosis?
A patient receives IV furosemide for fluid overload. Which findings show the treatment is working?
A patient who speaks little English needs to give consent for a procedure. Their 14-year-old child offers to interpret. What is the best action?
During a red cell transfusion, when are serious acute reactions most likely, so the nurse stays with the patient?
一名长期肺部疾病的患者血清碳酸氢盐 32 mEq/L,动脉血 PaCO₂ 一直偏高,pH 7.36。哪种情况最符合?
某练习血气显示代谢性酸中毒,HCO₃⁻ 14 mmol/L。用温特公式求预期PaCO₂(范围的中心),单位 mmHg。
某练习血气显示代谢性碱中毒,HCO₃⁻ 38 mmol/L。用预期 PaCO₂ = 0.7·HCO₃⁻ + 21 求预期PaCO₂。
解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
依次按五个步骤解读这条 II 导联心电图:心率、节律、P 波、PR 间期、QRS 时限。你在哪一步发现第一个异常?点击它。
A nurse teaches a patient about storing insulin at home. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
一名护士认为开出的剂量不安全。开医嘱者说无论如何要给药。护士应怎么做?
答案: C · Nicotine replacement is much safer than smoking and is recommended
Nicotine replacement delivers nicotine without carbon monoxide, tar and other toxins and is considered safe in stable heart disease. Combining a patch with a short-acting form and behavioural support gives the best chance of quitting.
答案: A · Superior vena cava obstruction
A tumour in the mediastinum can compress the superior vena cava, causing swelling of the face, neck and arms, dilated veins on the chest and breathlessness. It is an oncological emergency. The patient is sat upright and given oxygen if hypoxic, and treatment may include a stent, steroids or radiotherapy.
答案: B · Cloudy fluid, many neutrophils, low glucose and high protein
Bacterial meningitis usually gives turbid CSF with raised neutrophils and protein and low glucose. Viral meningitis typically shows clear fluid with lymphocytes and normal glucose.
答案: D · "I will buy corn plasters from the pharmacy for my corn."
Medicated corn plasters contain acids that can burn the skin and cause ulcers in people with neuropathy or poor circulation. Corns and calluses should be treated by a podiatrist.
答案: D · They may under-report pain, so active assessment is needed
Older adults may minimise pain or have cognitive or sensory problems that hinder reporting. Regular assessment with suitable tools and careful analgesia, starting low and adjusting slowly, are recommended.
答案: C · Free air under the diaphragm on an erect chest X-ray
A perforated peptic ulcer releases air into the peritoneal cavity, seen under the diaphragm on an erect chest X-ray or on CT. Shoulder-tip pain is referred from diaphragmatic irritation. The patient is kept nil by mouth, resuscitated and referred urgently to surgeons.
答案: A · Increased urine output, less breathlessness and a falling weight
Effective diuresis increases urine output and reduces congestion, so breathing improves and weight falls. Electrolytes, renal function and blood pressure are also monitored.
答案: C · Arrange a professional interpreter
Professional interpreters provide accurate, impartial translation and protect confidentiality. Children and family members should not be used for important clinical discussions such as consent.
答案: C · In the first 15 minutes
Acute hemolytic and anaphylactic reactions usually appear early, so the transfusion is started slowly and the nurse stays with the patient for about the first 15 minutes, checking vital signs before, during and after according to policy.
答案: D · COPD 伴慢性 CO₂ 潴留和代谢性代偿
在慢性 CO₂ 潴留(如重度 COPD)中,肾脏在数日内保留碳酸氢盐,使 pH 回到接近正常,往往位于范围的低端。DKA 和腹泻使碳酸氢盐降低,阿司匹林过量引起呼吸急促,使 PaCO₂ 降低。
答案: PaCO₂ = 29 mmHg
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: PaCO₂ = 47.6 mmHg
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
升高是有限度的:仅靠代偿,PaCO₂ 很少超过约 55 mmHg。
答案: 交界性心律
节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。
答案: PR 间期
每条心电图的五个步骤:1. 心率(300 法或 1500 法;若不规则则用 6 秒法);2. 节律:R–R 间期是否相等;3. P 波:是否存在、在 II 导联直立、每个 QRS 之前各有一个且形态一致;4. PR 间期:0.12–0.20 s 且恒定;5. QRS 时限:低于 0.12 s。五个步骤做完之后才命名节律。正常窦性心律五项全部符合:60–100 次/分,规则,每个 QRS 之前有直立 P 波,PR 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 低于 0.12 s。
答案: A · “I will keep my spare insulin in the freezer so it lasts longer.”
Freezing damages insulin, and frozen insulin should not be used. Unopened insulin is kept in the fridge, and heat and expired products are avoided.
答案: C · 暂停给药,并通过指挥链上报
认为医嘱不安全的护士不应给药,应记录所担忧之处,并通过指挥链上报,直到问题解决。自行更改剂量或悄悄漏给是不安全的,也超出护理范围。
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