内外科护理:速成包

公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 16 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。

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1公式与方法

内外科护理:心血管与呼吸

方法

  1. 说出问题所在:泵衰竭、动脉阻塞、节律、血栓、气道狭窄、感染或设备问题。
  2. 先检查危险征象:低氧、低血压、胸痛、新出现的意识模糊、冰冷无脉搏的肢体。
  3. 让氧疗与患者相匹配:大多数人为 94–98%,有 CO₂ 潴留风险者为 88–92%。
  4. 把每种药物与其检测和风险联系起来:华法林与 INR,肝素与 aPTT 和血小板,利尿剂与血钾。
  5. 选择安全的第一步措施,然后升级处理并重新评估。

内外科护理:神经、内分泌与肾脏

方法

  1. 对每位新出现意识模糊、乏力或癫痫发作的患者都检查血糖。
  2. 把意识水平作为脑部问题最早的警示;瞳孔变化和库欣三联征出现得较晚。
  3. 对于糖尿病急症,要区分 DKA(酮体、酸中毒)和 HHS(渗透压很高、脱水);先补液。
  4. 对于钠和水,要判断是 ADH 过多(SIADH)还是缺乏(尿崩症),并缓慢纠正慢性变化。
  5. 对于肾脏问题,把原因分为肾前性、肾性或肾后性,并监测血钾和液体。

内外科护理:消化、围手术期与肿瘤

方法

  1. 想一想可能隐藏着什么:内出血、无发热的感染、SpO₂ 正常背后的通气不足。
  2. 利用术后的时间来缩小并发症的范围:出血在数小时内,胸部问题在数天内,伤口和吻合口漏出现得更晚。
  3. 对于疼痛,要评估、用多模式镇痛治疗、重新评估,并且在每次使用阿片类药物时监测镇静程度。
  4. 对于癌症患者,把低谷期的任何疾病都当作中性粒细胞减少性脓毒症处理,并了解肿瘤急症。
  5. 对于烧伤,只计算浅二度/深二度和三度的面积,从烧伤的时刻开始计算 Parkland 时间,并根据尿量调整。

实验室检查值与电解质

方法

  1. 把数值与本实验室自己的参考范围比较,再与患者的基线和趋势比较。
  2. 检查标本:溶血、延迟,或在静脉输液附近采血都可能得出错误结果。
  3. 把数值与其典型体征以及引起它的药物和疾病联系起来。
  4. 注意相互作用:低钾或低镁会增加地高辛中毒的风险;脱水会使锂浓度升高。
  5. 对患者采取行动:评估,血药浓度不安全时暂停用药,复述危急值并通知开医嘱的医生。

动脉血气分析解读

正常范围
pH 7.35–7.45, PaCO₂ 35–45 mmHg (4.7–6.0 kPa), HCO₃⁻ 22–26 mmol/L
ROME
呼吸性:PaCO₂ 与 pH 相反; 代谢性:HCO₃⁻ 与 pH 同向
温特公式
PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2
代谢性碱中毒
PaCO₂ ≈ 0.7·HCO₃⁻ + 21
阴离子间隙
AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻) ≈ 8–12
白蛋白校正阴离子间隙
AG + 2.5·(4.0 − alb g/dL) = AG + 0.25·(40 − alb g/L)
Δ 比值
(AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻)
P/F 比值
PaO₂/FiO₂
肺泡气方程
PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8
血清渗透压
2·Na⁺ + glucose + urea (2·Na⁺ + glucose/18 + BUN/2.8)

方法

  1. 先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸中毒,高于 7.45 为碱中毒。
  2. 找出能解释它的指标:PaCO₂ 与 pH 反向变化为呼吸性,HCO₃⁻ 与 pH 同向变化为代谢性。
  3. 再看另一个指标:正常表示未代偿,沿代偿方向异常表示部分代偿,pH 正常而两项指标都异常表示完全代偿。
  4. 对于代谢性酸中毒,用温特公式 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 与 PaCO₂ 比较,并计算阴离子间隙 Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻)。
  5. 阴离子间隙升高时,用 Δ 比值检查;白蛋白偏低时,再用校正后的间隙检查。

心电图节律条带解读

纸速(25 mm/s,10 mm/mV)
1 个小格 = 0.04 s, 1 个大格 = 0.20 s, 10 mm = 1 mV
心率,节律规则
300 ÷ 大格数 = 1500 ÷ 小格数 = 60 ÷ RR (s)
心率,节律不规则
6 s 内的 QRS 波群数 × 10
正常 PR 间期
0.12–0.20 s
正常 QRS 时限
< 0.12 s
QTc(Bazett)
QT/√RR
QTc(Fridericia)
QT/∛RR
QTc(Framingham)
QT + 154·(1 − RR)
窦性心率
心动过缓 < 60, 正常 60–100, 心动过速 > 100 次/分
逸搏心率
交界性 40–60, 室性 20–40 次/分
快速性心律
SVT 150–250 /min(窄), VT > 100 /min(宽)

方法

  1. 心率:节律规则时,用 300 除以两个 R 波之间的大格数,或用 1500 除以小格数;节律不规则时,数 6 秒内的 QRS 波群数并乘以 10。
  2. 节律:比较 R–R 间期。相等为规则;有重复规律为规律性不规则;完全没有规律为绝对不规则。
  3. P 波:II 导联中每个 QRS 之前是否都有直立的 P 波,且形态一致?注意寻找颤动波或锯齿状波、倒置的 P 波以及后面没有 QRS 的 P 波。
  4. PR 间期:从 P 波起点到 QRS 起点,正常为 0.12–0.20 s 且恒定。注意它是逐渐延长、在脱漏搏动之前保持固定,还是随机变化。
  5. QRS 时限:低于 0.12 s 为窄;0.12 s 或以上为宽。然后命名节律,QT 用 QTc = QT/√RR(Bazett),时间以秒计。

优先排序与委派

方法

  1. 问自己:如果什么都不做,什么会最快伤害患者。
  2. 应用 ABC(心脏骤停时为 C-A-B),然后是 Maslow 需求层次:生理需要先于安全,安全先于心理需要。
  3. 比较各选项:急性先于慢性,不稳定先于稳定,意外先于预期,全身性先于局部,并将每项发现与患者的基线对照。
  4. 除非是紧急情况,否则先评估再行动;然后选择其他步骤所依赖的那一步。
  5. 委派时核对五项正确:任务、情境、人员、指示和监督。评估、宣教和评价仍由注册护士负责。

2练习题

1.内外科护理:心血管与呼吸中等

During airway suctioning, when should suction be applied?

  1. ABefore the catheter enters the airway
  2. BOnly while withdrawing the catheter
  3. CContinuously for at least 30 seconds
  4. DOnly while inserting the catheter
2.内外科护理:心血管与呼吸困难

Three days after an MI, a patient faints on the commode while straining hard to open the bowels. The heart rate was 42/min at the time. What is the most likely mechanism?

  1. ALow blood glucose from fasting
  2. BA vagal response to straining
  3. CAn allergic reaction to the commode
  4. DA new pulmonary embolism
3.内外科护理:神经、内分泌与肾脏中等

A patient with CKD is booked for a CT scan with iodinated contrast. Which measure helps protect the kidneys?

  1. AGiving a dose of ibuprofen before the scan
  2. BDoubling the dose of contrast for a clearer image
  3. CGood hydration around the scan, often with IV fluids
  4. DRestricting all fluids for 24 hours before the scan
4.内外科护理:神经、内分泌与肾脏困难

A patient with a new arm fistula says their hand on that side is cold, pale and painful, especially during dialysis. What is the concern?

  1. AAn allergic reaction to the dressing on the arm
  2. BNormal healing that needs no action
  3. CFluid overload in the arm
  4. DSteal syndrome, which needs urgent review
5.内外科护理:消化、围手术期与肿瘤中等

What does "neoadjuvant" treatment mean?

  1. ATreatment before the main treatment, often to shrink the tumour
  2. BTreatment given only for pain relief
  3. CTreatment that is given only after the cancer has already spread
  4. DTreatment that is given instead of any surgery
6.内外科护理:消化、围手术期与肿瘤困难

After two days of large volumes of IV 5% glucose, a postoperative patient becomes confused with a headache. Sodium is 124 mmol/L. What is the likely cause?

  1. ANormal confusion after any anaesthetic
  2. BHyponatraemia from hypotonic fluids
  3. CHypoglycaemia from the glucose
  4. DHypernatraemia from too much salt
7.临床护理中等

After a needlestick injury from a patient known to have HIV, why must the nurse report it immediately?

  1. APost-exposure prophylaxis works best when started as soon as possible
  2. BThe needle must be sent for culture
  3. CThe patient will need antibiotics
  4. DThe nurse must be tested for HIV the same day to confirm infection
8.临床护理困难

Why might a patient with diabetes who takes a beta-blocker not notice hypoglycaemia early?

  1. ABeta-blockers make the patient sleep through the night
  2. BBeta-blockers raise blood glucose, so true hypoglycaemia cannot happen at all
  3. CBeta-blockers can mask warning signs such as tremor and a fast heart rate
  4. DBeta-blockers stop the liver from responding to insulin
9.实验室检查值与电解质中等

A patient is on an IV insulin infusion protocol in the ICU. How often is the blood glucose usually checked?

  1. AAbout every hour
  2. BOnce every 12 hours
  3. COnly if symptoms occur
  4. DOnce a day before breakfast
10.实验室检查值与电解质困难

Which patient's result should the nurse act on first?

  1. AHemoglobin 6.4 g/dL (64 g/L) with new chest pain and a pulse of 124/min
  2. BHemoglobin 9.6 g/dL (96 g/L) in a patient with stable chronic kidney disease
  3. CPlatelets 140 × 10³/µL in a patient with mild chronic liver disease
  4. DFerritin 15 ng/mL in a well patient with known iron-deficiency anemia on oral iron
11.动脉血气分析解读中等

某练习血气显示 PaCO₂ 31 mmHg (4.1 kPa)。利用规则:在急性呼吸性碱中毒中,PaCO₂ 每比 40 低出 10 mmHg,HCO₃⁻ 下降 2 mmol/L,以HCO₃⁻ 24 mmol/L 为起点,求预期HCO₃⁻。

PaCO₂ 31 mmHg (4.1 kPa)基线值: 40 mmHg, 24 mmol/L
HCO₃⁻ = mmol/L
12.动脉血气分析解读困难
pH7.357.457.19PaCO₂mmHg354576HCO₃⁻mmol/L222628急性慢性慢性基础上的急性

某练习血气显示呼吸性酸中毒:pH 7.19,PaCO₂ 76 mmHg (10.1 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 28 mmol/L。利用规则“HCO₃⁻ 每 10 mmHg 升高 1 mmol/L(急性)或 3.5 mmol/L(慢性)”进行分类。点选你的答案。

pH 7.19PaCO₂ 76 mmHg (10.1 kPa)HCO₃⁻ 28 mmol/L
  1. 1急性
  2. 2慢性
  3. 3慢性基础上的急性
13.心电图节律条带解读中等
II25 mm/s · 10 mm/mV

在这条规则的 II 导联心电图上测量 QT 间期和 R–R 间期,然后用 Fridericia 公式 QTc = QT/∛RR(均以秒计)计算经心率校正的QTc。答案以秒表示,保留三位小数。

II 导联,25 mm/s,10 mm/mV1 个小格 = 0.04 s,1 个大格 = 0.20 s条带长度 6 s
QTc = s
14.心电图节律条带解读困难
II25 mm/s · 10 mm/mV心室颤动尖端扭转型室性心动过速室性自搏心律室上性心动过速(SVT)

识别这条 II 导联心电图上的节律。点击你的答案。

II 导联,25 mm/s,10 mm/mV1 个小格 = 0.04 s,1 个大格 = 0.20 s条带长度 6 s
  1. 1心室颤动
  2. 2尖端扭转型室性心动过速
  3. 3室性自搏心律
  4. 4室上性心动过速(SVT)
15.优先排序与委派中等

A drowsy patient who has just returned from surgery starts to vomit. What should the nurse do first?

  1. AGive a drink of water
  2. BGive an oral anti-sickness tablet
  3. CRaise the legs above the heart
  4. DTurn the patient onto their side
16.优先排序与委派困难

A patient with anorexia nervosa is admitted. Which finding is the priority?

  1. ARefuses to eat in front of other people
  2. BHeart rate 38/min and potassium 2.8 mEq/L
  3. CSays she feels fat although she is very thin
  4. DHas fine, downy hair on her arms

3溶液

1.内外科护理:心血管与呼吸

答案: B · Only while withdrawing the catheter

为什么是这个答案

The catheter is inserted without suction and suction is applied as it is withdrawn, with each pass kept short. This limits mucosal trauma and hypoxaemia. The patient is monitored for desaturation and bradycardia.

答案

B · Only while withdrawing the catheter
2.内外科护理:心血管与呼吸

答案: B · A vagal response to straining

为什么是这个答案

Straining (the Valsalva manoeuvre) can cause a vagal bradycardia and a fall in cardiac output, leading to syncope. After an MI, stool softeners, adequate fluids and avoiding straining are advised. The event is still reported and the patient assessed for arrhythmia or ischaemia.

答案

B · A vagal response to straining
3.内外科护理:神经、内分泌与肾脏

答案: C · Good hydration around the scan, often with IV fluids

为什么是这个答案

Iodinated contrast can contribute to AKI in at-risk patients. Good hydration, using the lowest dose needed, avoiding nephrotoxic drugs and checking kidney function afterwards help reduce the risk.

答案

C · Good hydration around the scan, often with IV fluids
4.内外科护理:神经、内分泌与肾脏

答案: D · Steal syndrome, which needs urgent review

为什么是这个答案

In steal syndrome, the fistula diverts arterial blood from the hand, causing ischaemia: coldness, pallor, pain, numbness or weakness. It must be reported urgently, because severe cases can cause tissue loss.

答案

D · Steal syndrome, which needs urgent review
5.内外科护理:消化、围手术期与肿瘤

答案: A · Treatment before the main treatment, often to shrink the tumour

为什么是这个答案

Neoadjuvant chemotherapy or radiotherapy is given before surgery to shrink the tumour, which may make surgery easier or allow less extensive surgery. Adjuvant therapy follows surgery.

答案

A · Treatment before the main treatment, often to shrink the tumour
6.内外科护理:消化、围手术期与肿瘤

答案: B · Hyponatraemia from hypotonic fluids

为什么是这个答案

Once the glucose is metabolised, 5% glucose acts as free water. Surgical stress increases ADH, so sodium falls, which can cause cerebral oedema. The team reviews fluids and corrects sodium carefully.

答案

B · Hyponatraemia from hypotonic fluids
7.临床护理

答案: A · Post-exposure prophylaxis works best when started as soon as possible

为什么是这个答案

HIV post-exposure prophylaxis should be started as soon as possible after exposure, ideally within hours. Occupational health or the emergency department will assess the risk and arrange follow-up testing.

答案

A · Post-exposure prophylaxis works best when started as soon as possible
8.临床护理

答案: C · Beta-blockers can mask warning signs such as tremor and a fast heart rate

为什么是这个答案

Tremor, palpitations and anxiety in hypoglycaemia are driven by the sympathetic system, which beta-blockers blunt. Sweating is often still present, and patients need to monitor glucose closely.

答案

C · Beta-blockers can mask warning signs such as tremor and a fast heart rate
9.实验室检查值与电解质

答案: A · About every hour

为什么是这个答案

IV insulin acts quickly and has a short half-life, so glucose is usually checked hourly (or as the protocol specifies) and the rate adjusted. This reduces the risk of hypoglycemia and keeps glucose in the target range.

答案

A · About every hour
10.实验室检查值与电解质

答案: A · Hemoglobin 6.4 g/dL (64 g/L) with new chest pain and a pulse of 124/min

为什么是这个答案

Severe anemia with chest pain and tachycardia suggests the heart is not receiving enough oxygen, which needs urgent action, often including transfusion. The other results are mildly abnormal but expected or stable.核对依据: Anemia · StatPearls (NCBI Bookshelf) (2026)

答案

A · Hemoglobin 6.4 g/dL (64 g/L) with new chest pain and a pulse of 124/min
11.动脉血气分析解读

答案: HCO₃⁻ = 22.2 mmol/L

预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。

PaCO₂ 的变化

|31 − 40| = 9 mmHg → 0.9 × 10 mmHg

HCO₃⁻ 的预期值

HCO₃⁻ = 24 − 2·0.9 = 22.2 mmol/L

答案

HCO₃⁻ = 22.2 mmol/L
12.动脉血气分析解读

答案: 急性

预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。

HCO₃⁻ 的预期值

急性: 24 + 1·3.6 = 27.6 mmol/L
慢性: 24 + 3.5·3.6 = 36.6 mmol/L

比较

实测: 28 mmol/L → 急性

答案

急性
13.心电图节律条带解读

答案: QTc = 0.44 s

QT 与 QTc:QT 间期从 QRS 波群起点到 T 波终点。它随心率加快而缩短,因此要用以秒为单位的 R–R 间期按心率校正:Bazett QTc = QT/√RR,Fridericia QTc = QT/∛RR。多数教科书使用 Bazett 公式;它在心率快时校正过度,此时宜用 Fridericia。各参考标准的界限不同:QTc 男性高于约 0.45 s、女性高于约 0.46 s 通常称为延长,高于 0.50 s 称为明显延长。

测量

QT = 11 × 0.04 = 0.44 s
RR = 25 × 0.04 = 1.00 s

Fridericia 公式

QTc = 0.44/∛1.00 = 0.44/1 = 0.44 s

答案

QTc = 0.44 s

在通常上限之内(男性约 0.45 s,女性约 0.46 s)。(440 ms)

14.心电图节律条带解读

答案: 尖端扭转型室性心动过速

更多室性心律:尖端扭转型室性心动过速是一种多形性室性心动过速,通常为 150–250 次/分钟,其增宽的波群高度不断变化并围绕基线扭转,先向上几个心搏,再向下。教科书将其与 QT 间期延长联系起来,复苏指南中针对它推荐的药物是硫酸镁。室性自搏心律是一种心室逸搏心律:规则、QRS 增宽(0.12 s 或以上)、无 P 波,频率 20–40 次/分钟(加速性室性自搏心律为 40–100 次/分钟)。单形性室速的增宽波群完全相同,频率超过 100 次/分钟。室颤则是混乱的,没有任何重复的波群。

五个步骤

1. 心率:非常快,各波群相隔约 6 个小格(约 250 次/分钟)。
2. 节律:快且大致规则,但波群的高度和方向呈重复的纺锤形变化。
3. P 波:无法辨认。
4. PR 间期:无法测量。
5. QRS:增宽且多形性;波群围绕基线扭转,先向上几个心搏,再向下。

解读

尖端扭转型室性心动过速

答案

尖端扭转型室性心动过速

尖端扭转型室性心动过速是与 QT 间期延长相关的多形性 VT。这里只是识别练习。

15.优先排序与委派

答案: D · Turn the patient onto their side

为什么是这个答案

A drowsy patient who vomits can aspirate. Turning them to the side lets vomit drain from the mouth; suction and a prescribed antiemetic follow.

答案

D · Turn the patient onto their side
16.优先排序与委派

答案: B · Heart rate 38/min and potassium 2.8 mEq/L

为什么是这个答案

Severe bradycardia and low potassium can cause fatal arrhythmias. The body-image beliefs and eating behaviors matter, but physiological safety comes first.

答案

B · Heart rate 38/min and potassium 2.8 mEq/L

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