内外科护理:心血管与呼吸
方法
- 说出问题所在:泵衰竭、动脉阻塞、节律、血栓、气道狭窄、感染或设备问题。
- 先检查危险征象:低氧、低血压、胸痛、新出现的意识模糊、冰冷无脉搏的肢体。
- 让氧疗与患者相匹配:大多数人为 94–98%,有 CO₂ 潴留风险者为 88–92%。
- 把每种药物与其检测和风险联系起来:华法林与 INR,肝素与 aPTT 和血小板,利尿剂与血钾。
- 选择安全的第一步措施,然后升级处理并重新评估。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 16 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
A patient with a long QT interval develops a polymorphic ventricular tachycardia that twists around the baseline but still has a pulse. Which drug is used first?
一名因心房颤动服用华法林的患者 INR 为 8.5,但没有出血。最可能的处理是什么?
Which long-term risk should a kidney transplant recipient be taught to reduce with sun protection?
一名甲状腺功能减退患者已数周未服药,入院时体温过低、嗜睡,脉搏 46 次/分,血钠偏低,PaCO₂ 升高。最可能的诊断是什么?
Why are laxatives and enemas avoided when appendicitis is suspected?
A nurse teaches a patient with GORD. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
A patient says they are "allergic" to codeine because it made them constipated. How should this be recorded?
A patient is admitted with suspected meningococcal disease. Which infection control measure is usually needed?
一名该服地高辛的患者钾为 3.1 mEq/L。为什么这个结果很重要?
A patient on warfarin with an INR of 3.6 fell and hit their head an hour ago. They now report a worsening headache and drowsiness. What is the priority?
某练习血气显示代谢性酸中毒,HCO₃⁻ 12 mmol/L。用温特公式求预期PaCO₂(范围的中心),单位 mmHg。
某练习血气显示呼吸性酸中毒:pH 7.25,PaCO₂ 62 mmHg (8.3 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 26 mmol/L。利用规则“HCO₃⁻ 每 10 mmHg 升高 1 mmol/L(急性)或 3.5 mmol/L(慢性)”进行分类。点选你的答案。
在这条规则的 II 导联心电图上测量 QT 间期和 R–R 间期,然后用 Fridericia 公式 QTc = QT/∛RR(均以秒计)计算经心率校正的QTc。答案以秒表示,保留三位小数。
这位患者装有起搏器。请解读这条 II 导联心电图条带。点击你的答案。
A patient receiving chemotherapy has a temperature of 38.3 °C and a very low neutrophil count. What should the nurse do?
在持续管饲过程中,一名患者突然开始咳嗽、呼吸急促,SpO₂ 下降。护士的首要行动是什么?
答案: B · Intravenous magnesium sulfate
Torsades de pointes is treated with IV magnesium, plus correction of low potassium and stopping drugs that prolong the QT interval. If the patient loses their pulse, defibrillation is needed. Potassium must never be given as an IV bolus.
答案: B · 暂停华法林,通知开处方者,并尽快复查 INR
没有出血的极高 INR,通常的处理是暂停华法林、通知开处方者并复查 INR。根据 INR 和当地方案,也可能开具小剂量口服维生素 K(英国指南在 INR 高于 8 时给予;美国指南主要在高于 10 或出血风险高时给予)。凝血酶原复合物浓缩剂和静脉维生素 K 用于大出血。鱼精蛋白用于逆转肝素。应查明 INR 升高的原因(新药、疾病、饮食)。
答案: C · Skin cancer
Transplant recipients have a much higher risk of skin cancers, especially squamous cell carcinoma, because of immunosuppression. Sun protection and regular skin checks are important.
答案: A · 黏液性水肿昏迷
黏液性水肿昏迷表现为意识下降、体温过低、心动过缓、通气不足、低钠血症和低血糖,常由感染或漏服药物诱发。需要重症监护,静脉给予甲状腺激素,在排除肾上腺功能不全前给予类固醇覆盖,被动复温,并对镇静药格外谨慎。
答案: B · They may increase the risk of perforation
Stimulating peristalsis can raise pressure on an inflamed appendix and may lead to rupture and peritonitis. The patient is kept nil by mouth while awaiting surgical assessment.
答案: A · "Peppermint tea after dinner will settle my reflux."
Peppermint can relax the lower oesophageal sphincter and may worsen reflux. Weight loss, stopping smoking and avoiding personal triggers are standard lifestyle measures.
答案: D · As a side effect or intolerance, not a true allergy
Constipation is a predictable side effect of opioids, not an immune response. Recording it accurately avoids withholding useful medicines while still noting the patient's experience.
答案: A · Droplet precautions until 24 hours of effective antibiotics have been given
Neisseria meningitidis spreads through droplets and close contact. Droplet precautions are used until 24 hours of effective antibiotics, and public health arranges prophylaxis for close contacts.
答案: D · 低钾增加地高辛中毒的风险
地高辛与钠–钾泵上通常结合钾的位点结合,因此低钾会增强地高辛的作用并增加心律失常的风险。护士应在给药前报告该数值。
答案: A · Report urgently for imaging and possible reversal
A head injury in an anticoagulated patient, with worsening headache and drowsiness, suggests intracranial bleeding. The provider is told at once, neurological checks are done often, urgent imaging is arranged, and warfarin reversal (vitamin K and a prothrombin complex concentrate) may be prescribed.核对依据: Taking warfarin (Coumadin, Jantoven) - what to ask your doctor · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025); Prothrombin Time Test and INR (PT/INR) · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024)
答案: PaCO₂ = 26 mmHg
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: 急性
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: QTc = 0.385 s
QT 与 QTc:QT 间期从 QRS 波群起点到 T 波终点。它随心率加快而缩短,因此要用以秒为单位的 R–R 间期按心率校正:Bazett QTc = QT/√RR,Fridericia QTc = QT/∛RR。多数教科书使用 Bazett 公式;它在心率快时校正过度,此时宜用 Fridericia。各参考标准的界限不同:QTc 男性高于约 0.45 s、女性高于约 0.46 s 通常称为延长,高于 0.50 s 称为明显延长。
在通常上限之内(男性约 0.45 s,女性约 0.46 s)。(385 ms)
答案: 心室起搏心律
起搏心律:起搏器脉冲表现为一条细而垂直的起搏钉样信号。心室钉样信号之后的 QRS 是增宽的(0.12 s 或以上),因为冲动是从导线经心肌传播,而不是经传导系统;右心室起搏时,在 II 导联上通常以负向为主。P 波之前的钉样信号表示心房起搏;双腔(房室)起搏器则表现为心房钉样信号加 P 波,再经过程控的房室延迟,出现心室钉样信号和增宽的 QRS。夺获是指每个钉样信号之后都跟着一次除极。夺获失败是指钉样信号之后没有 P 波或 QRS;感知不良(钉样信号无视患者自己的心搏)和起搏不良(该出现钉样信号时没有)是另外两种典型的故障。
起搏产生的 QRS 本来就是增宽的;不要称它为束支传导阻滞或室性心律。
答案: B · Report it at once, because cultures and antibiotics are needed quickly
Neutropenic fever is a medical emergency. The patient may have few other signs of infection, so the nurse reports it immediately so that cultures can be taken and IV antibiotics started.
答案: A · 停止管饲,让患者坐直并评估呼吸
管饲期间出现咳嗽、呼吸急促和血氧饱和度下降,提示误吸或管道移位。应立即停止管饲,让患者坐直,评估气道和呼吸,必要时吸痰和给氧,并通知医疗人员。在重新开始任何管饲之前先检查管道位置。
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