内外科护理:心血管与呼吸
方法
- 说出问题所在:泵衰竭、动脉阻塞、节律、血栓、气道狭窄、感染或设备问题。
- 先检查危险征象:低氧、低血压、胸痛、新出现的意识模糊、冰冷无脉搏的肢体。
- 让氧疗与患者相匹配:大多数人为 94–98%,有 CO₂ 潴留风险者为 88–92%。
- 把每种药物与其检测和风险联系起来:华法林与 INR,肝素与 aPTT 和血小板,利尿剂与血钾。
- 选择安全的第一步措施,然后升级处理并重新评估。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 16 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
A patient on home oxygen has dry, sore lips. Which product is safest to use?
一名 82 岁的社区获得性肺炎患者新近出现意识混乱,呼吸频率 32 次/分,血压 88/52 mmHg,尿素 9 mmol/L。这提示什么?
A patient with type 1 diabetes plans a long cycle ride. Which advice is most appropriate?
对使用甘露醇治疗颅内压升高的患者,哪项护理很重要?
Which presentation fits acute diverticulitis?
After signing the consent form, a patient tells the nurse, "I don't really understand what they are going to do." What should the nurse do?
After removing a peripheral IV cannula, what should the nurse check?
A patient taking regular ibuprofen suddenly develops severe upper abdominal pain, a rigid abdomen and becomes tachycardic. What is most likely?
一名患者血细胞比容 54%,BUN 高,尿比重 1.034。这种模式提示什么?
一名服用噻嗪类利尿剂的患者钠 129 mEq/L,钾 3.2 mEq/L,感觉乏力。哪种解释最合适?
某练习血气显示代谢性酸中毒,HCO₃⁻ 12 mmol/L。用温特公式求预期PaCO₂(范围的中心),单位 mmHg。
某练习血气显示代谢性酸中毒:pH 7.32,PaCO₂ 32 mmHg (4.3 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 16 mmol/L。把实测的PaCO₂与温特公式比较。点选你的解读。
这条 II 导联心电图条带显示窦性心律伴一次停顿。测量 停顿,即跨越停顿的 R–R 间期,单位为秒。
依次按五个步骤解读这条 II 导联心电图:心率、节律、P 波、PR 间期、QRS 时限。你在哪一步发现第一个异常?点击它。
A drowsy patient has an arterial blood gas with pH 7.30, PaCO₂ 58 mmHg (7.7 kPa) and HCO₃⁻ 25 mEq/L (mmol/L). Which problem is the priority?
A patient is admitted with suspected meningococcal meningitis. Which precautions are needed until treatment has been given for long enough?
答案: D · A water-based lubricant
Oil-based products such as petroleum jelly can ignite or burn intensely in high oxygen concentrations and have caused facial burns. Water-based products are recommended. Oxygen cylinders are kept upright and secured, away from heat and flames.
答案: D · CURB-65 评分为 5:高风险,需要紧急高级医师评估
该患者得分为 5 分(满分 5 分):意识混乱、尿素 >7 mmol/L、呼吸频率 ≥30 次/分、低血压和年龄 ≥65 岁。这提示重症肺炎,死亡率高,患者同时符合可能脓毒症的标准。需要迅速上报、静脉抗生素、补液,并评估是否需要重症监护。
答案: B · Check glucose before and after, and carry fast-acting carbohydrate
Exercise increases glucose uptake and insulin sensitivity, so hypos can occur during and for hours after activity. Checking glucose, carrying carbohydrate and, if advised, adjusting insulin or food reduce the risk.
答案: A · 密切监测尿量、血钠和渗透压
甘露醇把水从脑内拉入血液,并由肾脏排泄,引起大量利尿。需要监测脱水、低血压、电解质紊乱和高渗透压,通常需要留置导尿管。
答案: C · Left lower abdominal pain, fever and a raised CRP
Diverticulitis usually causes left iliac fossa pain and tenderness with fever, raised inflammatory markers and a change in bowel habit. CT confirms the diagnosis and shows complications such as abscess.
答案: B · Inform the surgeon so that the procedure can be explained again
Valid consent requires understanding. The nurse advocates for the patient and asks the surgeon (who obtains consent) to explain again before surgery goes ahead. The conversation is documented.
答案: C · That the cannula is intact, and apply pressure until bleeding stops
The nurse checks that the whole cannula has been removed, applies pressure and a dressing, and records the removal. Any signs of phlebitis are noted.
答案: A · A perforated peptic ulcer
Sudden severe pain with a board-like abdomen suggests perforation and peritonitis. The patient needs nil by mouth, IV access, analgesia and urgent surgical review.
答案: B · 脱水伴血液浓缩
血浆水分的丢失使红细胞浓缩(血细胞比容升高)、尿液浓缩(比重高),BUN 升高。液体过载则会出现相反的模式。核对依据: Hematocrit Test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024); BUN (Blood Urea Nitrogen) · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024)
答案: D · 利尿剂导致钠和钾丢失
噻嗪类利尿剂常引起低钠血症和低钾血症,尤其是在老年人中。护士应报告结果,开医嘱者会复核药物和电解质补充。核对依据: Thiazide Diuretics · StatPearls (NCBI Bookshelf) (2025)
答案: PaCO₂ = 26 mmHg
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: 适当的代偿
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: 停顿 = 2.04 s
窄 QRS 心动过速与停顿:室上性心动过速(SVT)是规则的心动过速,约 150–250 次/分钟,QRS 波群较窄;P 波通常看不到,因为它们隐藏在 QRS 波群或 T 波中。成人静息时的窦性心动过速通常低于约 150 次/分钟,且每个 QRS 前都有可见的 P 波;伴 2:1 传导的心房扑动常在约 150 次/分钟,并显示锯齿波。窦性停搏是指窦房结暂时停止发放冲动:出现既无 P 波也无 QRS 的停顿,其长度不是 P–P 周期的整数倍(恰好两个或三个周期的停顿则提示窦房传导阻滞)。
停顿中没有出现 P 波,且停顿不是 P–P 周期的整数倍:窦性停搏。恰好两个或三个周期的停顿则提示窦房传导阻滞。
答案: PR 间期
每条心电图的五个步骤:1. 心率(300 法或 1500 法;若不规则则用 6 秒法);2. 节律:R–R 间期是否相等;3. P 波:是否存在、在 II 导联直立、每个 QRS 之前各有一个且形态一致;4. PR 间期:0.12–0.20 s 且恒定;5. QRS 时限:低于 0.12 s。五个步骤做完之后才命名节律。正常窦性心律五项全部符合:60–100 次/分,规则,每个 QRS 之前有直立 P 波,PR 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 低于 0.12 s。
答案: C · Poor ventilation causing carbon dioxide to build up
A low pH with a high PaCO₂ and normal bicarbonate is respiratory acidosis. The patient is not breathing out enough carbon dioxide, so the priority is to support ventilation and escalate.
答案: D · Droplet precautions
Neisseria meningitidis spreads by respiratory droplets, so a surgical mask is worn within close range. Droplet precautions continue until the patient has received effective antibiotics for about 24 hours.
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