内外科护理:心血管与呼吸
方法
- 说出问题所在:泵衰竭、动脉阻塞、节律、血栓、气道狭窄、感染或设备问题。
- 先检查危险征象:低氧、低血压、胸痛、新出现的意识模糊、冰冷无脉搏的肢体。
- 让氧疗与患者相匹配:大多数人为 94–98%,有 CO₂ 潴留风险者为 88–92%。
- 把每种药物与其检测和风险联系起来:华法林与 INR,肝素与 aPTT 和血小板,利尿剂与血钾。
- 选择安全的第一步措施,然后升级处理并重新评估。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 16 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
A patient who had a stroke has a weak swallow. Which measure most reduces the risk of aspiration pneumonia?
A patient with rheumatoid arthritis is due to start an anti-TNF biologic drug. Which screening is essential beforehand?
Which measure best detects a decline in breathing in a patient with Guillain–Barré syndrome?
一名使用呼吸机的患者有创伤性脑损伤。除非即将发生脑疝,通常的 PaCO₂ 目标是什么?
A routine wound swab grows bacteria, but the wound shows no signs of infection. What does this usually mean?
During radiotherapy to the chest, a patient develops pain on swallowing and is eating less. What is the most likely cause and nursing focus?
Which features suggest pyelonephritis rather than simple cystitis?
Why can sepsis be missed in older adults?
A patient with schizophrenia is starting clozapine. Which laboratory value must be monitored regularly?
A healthy woman at 10 weeks of pregnancy has a slightly low TSH with a normal free T4 and no symptoms. What is the most likely explanation?
某练习血气显示 PaCO₂ 68 mmHg (9.1 kPa)。利用规则:在慢性呼吸性酸中毒中,PaCO₂ 每比 40 高出 10 mmHg,HCO₃⁻ 升高 3.5 mmol/L,以HCO₃⁻ 24 mmol/L 为起点,求预期HCO₃⁻。
某练习血气显示呼吸性酸中毒:pH 7.24,PaCO₂ 63 mmHg (8.4 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 26 mmol/L。利用规则“HCO₃⁻ 每 10 mmHg 升高 1 mmol/L(急性)或 3.5 mmol/L(慢性)”进行分类。点选你的答案。
在这条规则的 II 导联心电图上测量 QT 间期和 R–R 间期,然后用 Bazett 公式 QTc = QT/√RR(均以秒计)计算经心率校正的QTc。答案以秒表示,保留三位小数。
这条 II 导联心电图显示心房与心室之间存在传导问题。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。
A patient has a nasogastric tube on suction. Which task can the nurse delegate to a nursing assistant?
An adult choking on food is coughing forcefully and can speak a little. What should the nurse do?
答案: A · A swallowing assessment and sitting upright for meals
Patients with dysphagia need a formal swallowing assessment, food and fluid textures that are safe for them, sitting upright during and after meals and close supervision. Good oral hygiene also reduces the bacterial load that can be aspirated.
答案: D · Screening for latent tuberculosis
TNF-alpha is essential for containing TB in granulomas. Anti-TNF drugs can reactivate latent TB, sometimes as severe disseminated disease. Patients are screened (history, chest X-ray, IGRA) and treated for latent TB before starting.
答案: C · Regular forced vital capacity measurements
In Guillain–Barré syndrome, the breathing muscles weaken progressively. A falling vital capacity shows this early, long before oxygen saturation drops. A weak cough and difficulty counting in one breath are other warning signs.
答案: C · 正常的 PaCO₂(正常碳酸血症)
高 CO₂ 使脑血管扩张并升高颅内压,而过度通气使其收缩,可引起脑缺血。通常以正常碳酸血症(约 4.7–5.3 kPa,即 35–40 mmHg)为目标;仅在出现即将脑疝的征象时短暂过度通气,作为确定性治疗前的过渡。
答案: D · The wound is colonised; antibiotics are not usually needed
Bacteria on the surface without clinical signs of infection is colonisation. Antibiotics are guided by clinical signs such as spreading redness, pain, heat, pus or systemic illness, not by a swab alone.
答案: B · Radiation oesophagitis; analgesia, soft food and nutrition support
Radiotherapy to the chest can inflame the oesophagus, causing painful swallowing. Analgesia (sometimes before meals), soft moist food, nutritional supplements, dietitian input and monitoring weight are important.
答案: A · Fever, rigors and loin pain
Pyelonephritis is an upper urinary tract infection and causes systemic signs such as fever and rigors, with flank pain. Cystitis usually causes local symptoms such as dysuria and frequency.
答案: A · They may have no fever and present with confusion, falls or reduced mobility
Older people may have a normal or low temperature and present with delirium, falls or general decline. Early warning scores and a high index of suspicion are important.
答案: A · Absolute neutrophil count
Clozapine can cause severe neutropenia (agranulocytosis), so the ANC is checked before starting and regularly during treatment. A sore throat, fever or other sign of infection must be reported at once.
答案: D · hCG stimulates the thyroid in early pregnancy
hCG is structurally similar to TSH and stimulates the thyroid, peaking at the end of the first trimester, so TSH often falls slightly. With a normal free T4 and no symptoms, this is usually physiologic and is interpreted with pregnancy-specific ranges.核对依据: TSH (Thyroid-stimulating hormone) Test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024)
答案: HCO₃⁻ = 33.8 mmol/L
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: 急性
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: QTc = 0.495 s
QT 与 QTc:QT 间期从 QRS 波群起点到 T 波终点。它随心率加快而缩短,因此要用以秒为单位的 R–R 间期按心率校正:Bazett QTc = QT/√RR,Fridericia QTc = QT/∛RR。多数教科书使用 Bazett 公式;它在心率快时校正过度,此时宜用 Fridericia。各参考标准的界限不同:QTc 男性高于约 0.45 s、女性高于约 0.46 s 通常称为延长,高于 0.50 s 称为明显延长。
超过男性(约 0.45 s)和女性(约 0.46 s)的通常上限:延长。(495 ms)
答案: 二度 II 型房室传导阻滞
房室传导阻滞:逐个标出 P 波,检查哪些 P 波后面跟着 QRS。一度:每个 P 波都下传,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。二度 I 型(Mobitz I,文氏现象):PR 逐搏延长,直到一个 P 波未下传,然后周期重新开始(成组搏动)。二度 II 型(Mobitz II):下传搏动的 PR 保持恒定,P 波突然不下传;QRS 常增宽。三度(完全性)阻滞:P 波和 QRS 波群各自规则但互相独立,PR 随机变化,心房率快于逸搏率(交界性逸搏 40–60 次/分,QRS 窄;室性逸搏 20–40 次/分,QRS 宽)。2:1 阻滞仅凭一份条带无法判断是 I 型还是 II 型。
II 型和三度阻滞可能突然进展,所以教科书将它们列为比 I 型更严重。
答案: A · Giving mouth care
Mouth care is routine and important because the patient cannot eat or drink. Checking position, irrigating the tube and assessing drainage need nursing skills and judgement.
答案: C · Encourage the patient to keep coughing and stay with them
A partial obstruction with a forceful cough is best cleared by the patient’s own coughing. The nurse stays and is ready to act if the cough becomes weak or the patient cannot speak or breathe.
ExamProblems · examproblems.com/courses/medical-surgical-nursing