感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
A goal states: "The patient will report pain of 3/10 or less within one hour of analgesia." After one hour the patient reports 6/10. What should the nurse do?
A patient with a slow-healing leg ulcer is eating less than half of their meals. What is the most helpful nursing action?
The laboratory calls with a critical lab result by phone. What should the nurse do?
A patient with depression has suddenly become calm and is giving away personal possessions. What does this suggest?
A patient receives hemodialysis this morning. Which type of medication is often held before dialysis, as prescribed?
在 START 分诊中,一名成人没有呼吸。调整气道体位后,伤员仍不呼吸。正确的类别是什么?
Which ECG change is typical of hypokalaemia?
Why can sepsis be missed in older adults?
A stool test for Clostridioides difficile is ordered. Which sample is appropriate?
A patient admitted with heavy alcohol use and malnutrition has a glucose of 52 mg/dL (2.9 mmol/L) and low magnesium. Which prescribed treatment should be given before the IV glucose?
为什么布洛芬等 NSAIDs 会增加胃溃疡风险?
A woman has received a high-dose oxytocin infusion with large volumes of hypotonic fluid for many hours. She now has a headache, confusion and a low serum sodium. What is the most likely cause?
A pulse oximeter on a patient's finger gives an unreliable, flickering reading. Which factor is the most likely cause?
After an anaphylactic reaction to a bee sting that responded to adrenaline (epinephrine), a patient asks to go home immediately. Which advice is most appropriate?
Why is nimodipine given to patients after a subarachnoid haemorrhage?
一名患者昨天刚建立左臂动静脉内瘘,需要做常规抽血。最重要的指示是什么?
哪项陈述最能描述阿片类药物耐受?
A competent adult who is a Jehovah's Witness refuses blood transfusion before major surgery. What should the nurse do?
A pregnant woman takes warfarin for a mechanical heart valve. Why is she usually switched to heparin for much of the pregnancy?
A baby was stillborn at 38 weeks. Which nursing action is most appropriate?
婴儿的哪项发现提示发育性髋关节发育不良?
Which treatment is not routinely recommended for a typical infant with bronchiolitis?
卡马西平与哪些严重不良反应有关?
一名已知有惊恐障碍的患者说她胸痛并呼吸困难。护士应首先做什么?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次滴速计算得到 160.619 gtt/min。 本练习的规则是:滴速取整到最接近的整滴。你记录的数值x是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次维持输液以 50 mL/h 的速度不间断运行。24 小时内输注多少升V?
5 mL 的 5%(w/v)溶液中含有多少毫克药物 m?
处方剂量为 0.96 mg。安瓿每 mL 含 2000 微克。请用 1 mL 注射器抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
滴注以 40 gtt/min 的速度通过滴系数为 20 gtt/mL 的输液器。患者在 8 小时内接受多少毫升 V?
将 100 mg 药物稀释于 100 mL 中,通过滴系数为 15 gtt/mL 的输液器重力滴注。医嘱为每小时 100 mg。求滴速 R,以每分钟滴数表示。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 500 mL 的液体用输液泵以 150 mL/h 输注。到 09:30 时已输入 150 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Morse 跌倒评分评估一位练习患者:过去 3 个月内的跌倒史: 是; 次要诊断: 否; 行走辅助: 扶着家具; 静脉输液或封管: 是; 步态: 正常、卧床休息或轮椅; 精神状态: 高估或忘记自身局限。求 Morse 总分MFS。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 21 次/分,SpO₂ 99%正在补充吸氧,血压 136/82 mmHg,脉搏 88 次/分,清醒,体温 35.8 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
答案: B · Record the goal as not met and review the plan
Evaluation compares the outcome with the goal. The goal was not met, so the nurse reassesses, reports and revises the plan, for example with a different analgesic.
答案: A · Refer to the dietitian and support protein and energy intake
Poor intake delays healing. Screening, dietitian referral, food charts and support with meals, including protein and energy supplements if needed, help the wound heal.
答案: C · Write it down, read it back to confirm and report it to the provider promptly
Writing down and reading back critical results confirms they were heard correctly. The nurse then reports them promptly to the responsible provider and documents who was told and when.
答案: C · A possibly increased suicide risk that needs immediate assessment
A sudden improvement in mood with giving away belongings can mean the person has made a plan. The nurse assesses suicide risk directly, increases observation and informs the team.
答案: C · Antihypertensive drugs
Removing fluid during dialysis can cause hypotension, so blood pressure drugs are often held before treatment as prescribed. Some drugs are also removed by dialysis and given afterwards.
答案: B · 黑色(死亡或期待观察)
在 START 中,调整气道体位后仍不呼吸的伤员被标为黑色。为一个人进行心肺复苏会使救援人员远离许多可能存活的其他人。如果调整体位后恢复呼吸,则该伤员为红色。
答案: D · Flattened T waves and prominent U waves
Low potassium causes flattened or inverted T waves, ST depression and U waves. It increases the risk of arrhythmias, especially in patients on digoxin.
答案: C · They may have no fever and present with confusion, falls or reduced mobility
Older people may have a normal or low temperature and present with delirium, falls or general decline. Early warning scores and a high index of suspicion are important.
答案: C · An unformed (liquid or soft) stool
C. difficile testing is done on unformed stool from patients with diarrhea, because many people carry the organism without disease. Testing formed stool, or stool after laxatives, can lead to misdiagnosis.核对依据: C. diff Testing · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026)
答案: C · IV thiamine
People with alcohol use disorder and malnutrition are often deficient in thiamine. Giving glucose first can use up the remaining thiamine and precipitate Wernicke encephalopathy, so thiamine is usually given before or with glucose. Hypoglycemia must still be treated promptly.
答案: C · 它们减少胃黏膜中的保护性前列腺素
NSAIDs 抑制 COX-1,减少维持胃黏膜黏液、碳酸氢盐分泌和血流的前列腺素。
答案: B · Water intoxication from the antidiuretic effect of oxytocin
Oxytocin has antidiuretic activity at high doses. With large volumes of fluid this can cause water retention and dilutional hyponatraemia, so fluid balance and sodium are monitored.
答案: C · Cold hands with poor peripheral circulation
Poor perfusion (cold, shock, vasoconstriction), movement, dark nail varnish or bright ambient light can make readings unreliable. The nurse checks the waveform, warms the hand or uses an ear probe, and compares the reading with the clinical picture.
答案: C · Stay for observation, then go home with an adrenaline auto-injector and teaching
Biphasic reactions can occur hours after the first reaction resolves, so patients are observed for a period determined by severity and local guidance. Before discharge they receive adrenaline auto-injectors with training, a written plan and referral to an allergy service.
答案: A · To reduce brain injury from delayed vasospasm
Nimodipine, a calcium channel blocker, reduces the risk of poor outcome from delayed cerebral ischaemia caused by vasospasm. Blood pressure must be monitored because it can cause hypotension.
答案: C · 使用右臂;检查左手的循环和震颤
新内瘘应避免受压和穿刺。护士检查震颤和血管杂音,并检查手部的温度、颜色和感觉,因为内瘘可能“盗取”手部的血液。内瘘通常需要数周成熟后才能用于透析。
答案: A · 随时间推移需要更高剂量才能获得相同效果
耐受是指随着时间推移,对同一剂量的反应降低。身体依赖是指突然停药会出现戒断症状。两者都不同于成瘾(阿片类药物使用障碍),后者是不顾伤害而强迫性使用。
答案: D · Respect the decision, document it and inform the team
An informed refusal by a competent adult must be respected. The team discusses which products and alternatives (such as cell salvage or iron) the patient accepts, documents the decision and plans to reduce blood loss.
答案: C · Warfarin crosses the placenta and can harm the fetus
Warfarin crosses the placenta and is teratogenic and can cause fetal bleeding. Heparins are large molecules that do not cross the placenta, so low molecular weight heparin is commonly used instead.
答案: A · Offer the parents time to see and hold their baby
Parents should be offered time with their baby, to name, hold and dress the baby if they wish, and keepsakes such as photographs, footprints or locks of hair. Their choices should be respected without pressure.
答案: D · 大腿或臀部皮纹不对称,髋关节外展受限
体征包括皮纹不对称、外展受限、一侧腿明显较短,以及 Ortolani 或 Barlow 试验阳性。婴儿期的治疗常使用 Pavlik 吊带。
答案: B · Bronchodilators or corticosteroids
Guidelines advise supportive care for bronchiolitis: oxygen when needed, fluids or feeding support and suction of blocked noses. Bronchodilators, steroids and antibiotics have not been shown to help typical cases and are not routinely used.
答案: D · 粒细胞缺乏症等血液系统疾病,以及严重的皮肤反应
卡马西平可引起粒细胞缺乏症和再生障碍性贫血、低钠血症和 Stevens–Johnson 综合征。它是强效酶诱导剂,与许多药物有相互作用。
答案: B · 对她进行躯体评估,包括生命体征,并按规定做心电图,而不是先假定是惊恐发作
必须排除心脏病发作或肺栓塞等躯体原因。“诊断遮蔽”,即假定症状是精神性的,是一种常见而危险的错误。
答案: x = 161 gtt/min
取整:看舍入位后面的那个数字:5 或更大则进位,4 或更小则保持原数字不变。只对最终答案取整,绝不对中间步骤取整。典型的考试规则:1 mL 或以上的体积取到十分位,低于 1 mL 的体积取到百分位,滴速取整到整滴,体重取到一位小数;务必遵循题目所规定的规则。
答案: V = 1.2 L
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: m = 250 mg
Solution strengths: a percentage strength is grams per 100 mL, so 1% = 1 g/100 mL = 10 mg/mL. A ratio strength 1:1000 means 1 g in 1000 mL = 1 mg/mL; 1:10 000 is 0.1 mg/mL. For a dilution the amount of drug stays the same: C₁·V₁ = C₂·V₂.
答案: V = 0.48 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
答案: V = 960 mL
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
答案: R = 25 gtt/min
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: I = 1870 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 2.3 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 2 h 20 min,所以袋子大约在 11:50 输完。
答案: MFS = 90
Morse 跌倒评分:六个条目。跌倒史:否 0 分,是 25 分。次要诊断:否 0 分,是 15 分。行走辅助:无、卧床休息或护士协助 0 分;拐杖、手杖或助行器 15 分;扶着家具 30 分。静脉输液或封管:否 0 分,是 20 分。步态:正常、卧床休息或轮椅 0 分;虚弱 10 分;受损 20 分。精神状态:了解自身局限 0 分;高估或忘记自身局限 15 分。总分为 0 至 125。各医院的风险分界值不同;常用的一套是 0–24 低风险,25–44 中度风险,45 及以上为高风险。
答案: 中
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
总分 5 或以上需要紧急的临床响应。
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