感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
In England and Wales, what does it mean if a child under 16 is "Gillick competent"?
A patient with severe anaemia has an SpO₂ of 98%. Why can this reading be misleading?
Which practice is safe when transferring a patient from a bed to a stretcher?
During a disaster, the hospital needs to free beds quickly. Which patient is the best candidate for early discharge?
A patient receiving chemotherapy has a temperature of 38.3 °C and a very low neutrophil count. What should the nurse do?
A team has an RN, an LPN/LVN and a nursing assistant. Which task is the best one to assign to the LPN/LVN?
What should the nurse regularly check for a patient with a syringe driver?
一名腹部手术后的患者八小时未排尿,下腹部不适,可触及膀胱。最可能的问题是什么?
A patient starts high-dose prednisone. Which laboratory change should the nurse expect?
An 82-year-old woman without a catheter has a urine culture growing bacteria, but no fever, urinary symptoms or change in mental state. What is the best interpretation?
During an oxytocin infusion, contractions become very frequent and the fetal heart rate shows late decelerations. What is the nurse's first action?
有些受体即使没有激动剂也表现出活性。在这类受体上,反向激动剂与中性拮抗剂有何不同?
一名室上性心动过速患者将接受静脉腺苷。护士应提醒患者注意什么?
一名 COPD 患者呼吸困难,未吸氧时 SpO₂ 84%。血气分析显示 pH 7.30,PaCO₂ 升高,尽管已给予最佳药物治疗。可能会考虑哪种治疗?
关于高渗高血糖状态(HHS),下列哪项说法正确?
A patient has fever, confusion, odd behaviour and a new seizure. Herpes simplex encephalitis is suspected. Which drug is usually started straight away?
What is TENS?
A nurse teaches a patient going home between chemotherapy cycles. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
A woman in late pregnancy has numbness and tingling in her thumb and first fingers, worse at night. What is the most likely cause?
一名产妇在使用缩宫素期间宫缩频繁:过去半小时内每 10 分钟 6 次。胎心监护图正常。最恰当的措施是什么?
一名 5 周龄的婴儿每次喂奶后都出现用力的(喷射性)呕吐,吐后似乎仍很饿。可能的原因是什么?
A 10-year-old has vomiting, abdominal pain, deep rapid breathing and a fruity smell on the breath. His blood glucose is very high. What is the most likely diagnosis?
哪项原则适用于身体约束的使用?
A school nurse is teaching about inhalant use such as sniffing glue or aerosols. Which risk should be stressed?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的体温为 37.3 °C。用 °F = °C × 9/5 + 32 把它换算为华氏度T。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一张处方写着口服混悬液1½ tsp,每天四次,共 14 天。混悬液每瓶 100 mL。按1 tsp = 5 mL,必须提供多少整瓶N才能完成疗程?
某患者体重 18 kg,医嘱为单次给药 2 mg/kg。求剂量 D(mg)。
一名体重 8 kg 的儿童,医嘱为口服混悬液每次 5 mg/kg,该混悬液每 5 mL 含 125 mg。你应给多少体积 V?
医嘱要求在 6 小时内输入 1500 mL。4 小时后你发现袋中还剩 650 mL,而输液仍须按时完成。 必须把泵重新设定为多少 mL/h 的速率 R?
25 mg 药物溶于 250 mL 的输液以 18 mL/h 运行。患者每分钟接受多少微克 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体于 06:15 开始用输液泵以 100 mL/h 输注。到 12:15 时袋中还剩多少 mL V?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Morse 跌倒评分评估一位练习患者:过去 3 个月内的跌倒史: 否; 次要诊断: 否; 行走辅助: 扶着家具; 静脉输液或封管: 是; 步态: 受损; 精神状态: 了解自身局限。求 Morse 总分MFS。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 出生后 5 分钟,一名练习用新生儿的表现为:全身皮肤青紫或苍白,心率 60 次/分,刺激后无反应,四肢略有屈曲,呼吸缓慢、不规则,哭声微弱。 为 Apgar 评分并点击该评分的解读。
答案: A · They have enough understanding to consent to a particular treatment themselves
A Gillick-competent young person under 16 has enough maturity and understanding to consent to a specific treatment. Competence is judged for each decision.
答案: B · The red cells present are saturated, but the blood carries little oxygen
SpO₂ shows the percentage of haemoglobin that carries oxygen, not how much haemoglobin there is. With very little haemoglobin the oxygen content of the blood can be low despite a normal saturation.
答案: A · Lock the wheels of both the bed and the stretcher before moving the patient
Both surfaces are locked and at the same height before the transfer, a slide sheet is used and enough staff help. Side rails are raised on the stretcher during transport.
答案: A · A patient admitted overnight for observation who is now stable with normal tests
In a surge, stable patients who could be safely cared for at home are discharged first. Patients who are unstable or need close monitoring or titrated infusions must stay.
答案: D · Report it at once, because cultures and antibiotics are needed quickly
Neutropenic fever is a medical emergency. The patient may have few other signs of infection, so the nurse reports it immediately so that cultures can be taken and IV antibiotics started.
答案: C · Giving a scheduled subcutaneous anticoagulant injection to a stable patient
LPNs/LVNs usually give scheduled injections to stable patients. A fresh postoperative assessment and teaching plans need the RN, and routine vital signs are better given to the assistant so the LPN/LVN can use their skills.
答案: B · The infusion site, the rate and volume remaining, and the patient's symptoms
Nurses check that the infusion is running as planned, the site has no redness or swelling, and the symptoms are controlled. Problems are acted on quickly to avoid distress.
答案: C · 急性尿潴留
麻醉、阿片类药物和疼痛都可能引起尿潴留。膀胱扫描可确认残余尿量;通常需要导尿。
答案: C · A rise in blood glucose
Glucocorticoids raise blood glucose by increasing glucose production and reducing insulin sensitivity. They also tend to lower potassium, retain sodium and raise the white cell count by releasing neutrophils into the blood.
答案: C · Asymptomatic bacteriuria, usually not treated with antibiotics
Asymptomatic bacteriuria is common in older adults and usually should not be treated, because treatment brings adverse effects and resistance without benefit. Exceptions include pregnancy and some urological procedures.
答案: D · Stop the oxytocin infusion
Excessive contractions reduce placental blood flow and cause fetal distress. The oxytocin is stopped first, then the woman is turned on her side, IV fluids and oxygen are given as per protocol and the provider is informed.
答案: A · 它使活性降到基础水平以下
中性拮抗剂只是阻断激动剂,基础活性不变。反向激动剂稳定受体的非活性状态,因此组成性活性降到基础水平以下。
答案: D · 短暂的面部潮红或胸闷,以及几秒钟的停顿感
腺苷以快速静脉推注给药,随后用生理盐水冲管,并持续心电监护。它短暂阻断房室结传导,常引起几秒钟的心搏停止、面部潮红、胸部不适、呼吸困难或濒死感。这些作用只持续几秒。
答案: A · 无创通气(NIV)
在 COPD 急性加重伴呼吸性酸中毒(pH < 7.35 且 PaCO₂ 升高)、经最佳药物治疗仍持续存在时,NIV 可降低死亡率和插管需求。继续控制性氧疗,目标为 88–92%。不受控制的高流量氧气和镇静药可使 CO₂ 潴留加重。
答案: B · 主要影响老年 2 型糖尿病患者,数天内发展
HHS 在数天内发展,常由感染诱发,表现为极度高血糖、极高渗透压和严重脱水,常伴意识混乱。体内的胰岛素足以防止明显的酮症。死亡率高于 DKA,血栓形成的风险也很高。
答案: A · IV aciclovir
Herpes simplex encephalitis is treatable but can cause severe brain damage. IV aciclovir is started as soon as it is suspected, without waiting for test results. Kidney function and hydration are monitored during treatment.
答案: A · A device that sends mild electrical pulses through skin pads
TENS is thought to reduce pain partly through the gate-control mechanism. It is non-invasive and patient-controlled, but is avoided over certain areas and with some implanted devices.
答案: A · "If I get a fever, I'll take paracetamol and see if it settles."
Fever or feeling unwell during the nadir may mean neutropenic sepsis, which needs urgent assessment and antibiotics within an hour. Patients must call the emergency line straight away, not wait at home.
答案: D · Carpal tunnel syndrome
Fluid retention in pregnancy can compress the median nerve in the carpal tunnel. A wrist splint at night often helps, and symptoms usually resolve after birth.
答案: A · 按规程减量或停用缩宫素,并告知医疗人员
10 分钟内超过 5 次宫缩即为宫缩过频。即使监护图正常,也应按规程减量或停用缩宫素,因为胎儿可能很快出现窘迫。
答案: B · 幽门狭窄
幽门狭窄通常在 2–8 周时出现,表现为喷射性、非胆汁性呕吐,呕吐后饥饿、体重减轻,有时可触及橄榄形肿块。
答案: C · Diabetic ketoacidosis
Without insulin the body burns fat, producing ketones that cause metabolic acidosis. Deep, rapid (Kussmaul) breathing, a fruity breath smell, vomiting and abdominal pain with high glucose point to DKA, an emergency.
答案: D · 这是限制较少的措施失败后的最后手段,需密切监测,并在安全时尽快解除
仅在降级处理失败后,为防止迫在眉睫的伤害,并依照法律和政策才使用约束。应持续监测患者的呼吸、循环和健康状况,并记录一切。
答案: B · Sudden death from a heart arrhythmia, even on the first use
Inhalants can sensitise the heart to adrenaline and cause fatal arrhythmias ("sudden sniffing death"), even in first-time users. They can also cause suffocation and brain, liver and kidney damage.
答案: T = 99.1 °F
温度:°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9,°F = °C × 9/5 + 32。从 °F 换算时先减 32 再乘,从 °C 换算时先乘再加 32。快速核对:37 °C 为 98.6 °F,每 1 °C 相当于 1.8 °F。
答案: N = 5
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: D = 36 mg
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: V = 1.6 mL
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: R = 325 mL/h
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
这超过了 25% 的增幅:大多数医院要求你联系开医嘱者,而不是加快补输,并评估患者是否存在液体过多。
答案: D = 30 mcg/min
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: I = 1800 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: V = 400 mL
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: MFS = 70
Morse 跌倒评分:六个条目。跌倒史:否 0 分,是 25 分。次要诊断:否 0 分,是 15 分。行走辅助:无、卧床休息或护士协助 0 分;拐杖、手杖或助行器 15 分;扶着家具 30 分。静脉输液或封管:否 0 分,是 20 分。步态:正常、卧床休息或轮椅 0 分;虚弱 10 分;受损 20 分。精神状态:了解自身局限 0 分;高估或忘记自身局限 15 分。总分为 0 至 125。各医院的风险分界值不同;常用的一套是 0–24 低风险,25–44 中度风险,45 及以上为高风险。
答案: 低
Apgar 评分:五项体征,每项评 0、1 或 2 分,在出生后 1 分钟和 5 分钟检查。外观(肤色):青紫或苍白 0 分,躯干粉红、四肢青紫 1 分,全身粉红 2 分。脉搏:无 0 分,低于 100 次/分 1 分,100 次/分或以上 2 分。反射(反射应激性):无 0 分,做鬼脸 1 分,哭叫、咳嗽或打喷嚏 2 分。肌张力(活动):松软 0 分,略有屈曲 1 分,活动活跃 2 分。呼吸:无 0 分,缓慢或不规则、哭声微弱 1 分,良好、哭声响亮 2 分。总分 7–10 为令人放心,4–6 为中度异常,0–3 为低。
5 分钟时低于 7 分,通常每 5 分钟重复评分一次,直至 20 分钟。
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