感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
Why do nurses often count the respiratory rate while still appearing to take the pulse?
Which simple measure helps reduce the risk of delirium in an older inpatient?
对于感染 Neisseria meningitidis 的患者,飞沫传播预防通常应在何时停止?
A hospital will introduce new infusion pumps and wants to find out how the process could fail before any harm occurs. Which method fits best?
Several patients on a gastroenterology unit need care. Which patient should the nurse see first?
A patient with untreated hyperthyroidism has surgery and develops a temperature of 40 °C, a heart rate of 160/min and severe agitation. What is most likely happening?
A patient on insulin reports nightmares, night sweats and morning headaches. What should be suspected?
Which drug group is first-line for a prolonged convulsive seizure?
A patient taking furosemide has a potassium of 3.3 mEq/L and is told to eat more potassium-rich foods. Which snack is the best choice?
A patient recovering from acute tubular necrosis now passes 4–5 L of urine a day. Which electrolyte changes should the nurse watch for?
Why is a spacer recommended with a metered-dose inhaler?
Five days after starting clindamycin, a patient has frequent watery diarrhoea, abdominal cramps and a fever. What should the nurse suspect and do?
Which energy-conservation advice is most useful for a patient with severe COPD?
一名 COPD 患者将带着长期氧疗回家。哪项宣教要点对安全最重要?
Why should antiepileptic drugs not be stopped suddenly?
A nurse teaches a woman with recurrent UTIs. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
Which group of findings suggests obstruction of the bile duct?
A colleague suggests giving a saline injection to see whether a patient's pain is "real". What is the best response?
哪项表现提示是产后抑郁而不是产后忧郁?
一名重度产后出血的女性正在接受子宫收缩剂治疗。早期加用哪种药物可减少出血所致的死亡?
在镰状细胞病的血管闭塞性(疼痛)危象的处理中,哪些措施是核心?
After cardiac catheterisation through the femoral artery, the nurse sees blood soaking through the dressing. What should the nurse do first?
A patient says, "The doctor says I'm getting better, but I don't think anyone here really knows me." Which nurse response is most therapeutic?
A patient's mood changes several times a day, usually after conflicts with others. She has chronic feelings of emptiness and a strong fear of being abandoned. Which diagnosis is most likely?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的体温为 37.7 °C。用 °F = °C × 9/5 + 32 把它换算为华氏度T。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一张处方写着口服混悬液2 tsp,每 12 小时一次,共 14 天。混悬液每瓶 100 mL。按1 tsp = 5 mL,必须提供多少整瓶N才能完成疗程?
一名体重 8 kg 的儿童按 15 mg/kg 处方用药。原液浓度为 40 mg/mL。请抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
一名体重 28 kg 的儿童,医嘱为口服混悬液每次 10 mg/kg,该混悬液每 5 mL 含 200 mg。你应给多少体积 V?
滴注以 35 gtt/min 的速度通过滴系数为 20 gtt/mL 的输液器。患者在 3 小时内接受多少毫升 V?
一袋液体在 250 mL 中含药 200 mg,以 20 mL/h 的速度输注。患者每小时获得多少毫克 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。患者体重 70 kg。求平均尿量 U,以 mL/kg/h 计。 保留两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份 500 mL 的输液于 20:00 开始以 80 mL/h 输注。3 小时后速率改为 60 mL/h,之后不再改变。从开始算起多少小时 t 后袋子会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一张练习图表记录了 GCS 8,其中 E3 和 V3。记录的运动评分M是多少,它描述的是哪种反应?请给出数字。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 14 次/分,SpO₂ 86%吸室内空气,血压 118/70 mmHg,脉搏 76 次/分,清醒,体温 36.4 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
答案: D · Patients who know their breathing is watched tend to change it
Breathing can be changed on purpose, so a patient who is aware of being watched may breathe differently. Counting unobtrusively for a full minute gives a more accurate rate.
答案: B · Making sure they have their glasses and hearing aids
Sensory aids, orientation, good sleep, hydration, mobility and family involvement all help prevent delirium. Frequent moves and poor sleep make it more likely.
答案: C · 有效抗生素治疗 24 小时后
有效抗生素治疗 24 小时后,患者不再被视为具有传染性,因此可根据当地规定停止飞沫传播预防。
答案: A · Failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA)
FMEA is a proactive method that looks at each step of a process, asks how it could fail and what the effect would be, and changes the process in advance. Root cause analysis is used after an event has happened.
答案: B · Two hours after a colonoscopy: rigid abdomen and severe new pain
A rigid abdomen with severe pain after colonoscopy suggests bowel perforation and peritonitis, a surgical emergency. The other patients have stable, chronic or routine needs.
答案: C · Thyroid storm
Thyroid storm is a life-threatening surge of thyroid hormone, with fever, tachycardia and agitation or confusion. It needs urgent treatment; myxedema coma is the opposite extreme of hypothyroidism.
答案: D · Night-time hypoglycaemia
Nocturnal hypoglycaemia can cause sweating, restless sleep, nightmares and morning headache. Checking glucose overnight and reviewing insulin doses can confirm and correct it.
答案: A · Benzodiazepines, such as buccal midazolam or IV lorazepam
Benzodiazepines enhance GABA and are first-line for seizures lasting over five minutes. If seizures continue, second-line antiepileptic drugs are given and senior help is needed.
答案: D · Dried apricots
Dried fruits such as apricots, raisins and prunes are rich in potassium, as are bananas, oranges, potatoes, beans and tomatoes. Refined grain products such as white bread and crackers are low in potassium.核对依据: Potassium in diet · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026)
答案: D · Low potassium and low sodium from urine losses
In the diuretic phase of AKI, the recovering tubules lose large amounts of water and electrolytes, so dehydration, hypokalemia and hyponatremia can occur. Daily weights, intake and output, and frequent electrolytes guide replacement.核对依据: Acute tubular necrosis · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: A · More drug reaches the lungs and less stays in the mouth
A spacer holds the aerosol so it can be inhaled slowly, without precise coordination. This improves lung delivery and reduces mouth side effects such as thrush from inhaled steroids.
答案: C · C. difficile infection; send stool, use contact precautions, avoid antidiarrhoeals
Broad-spectrum antibiotics, especially clindamycin, allow C. difficile to overgrow and release toxins. Stool is tested, contact precautions with soap-and-water handwashing are used, and antidiarrhoeals are avoided because they keep toxin in the gut.
答案: D · Sit down for tasks such as washing and dressing, and pace activities
Planning and pacing, sitting for tasks, keeping frequently used items within reach and breathing out during effort reduce breathlessness. Complete inactivity worsens deconditioning, so activity is encouraged within limits.
答案: A · 绝不吸烟,也不要让明火靠近氧气
吸氧时吸烟是烧伤和致命火灾的主要原因。患者必须使氧气远离火焰和热源,使用水溶性(而非油性)润滑剂,并遵循处方流量,因为无人监督地增加流量可使 CO₂ 潴留加重。
答案: A · Sudden withdrawal can trigger seizures, including status epilepticus
Stopping antiepileptics abruptly can cause rebound seizures, which may be prolonged. Changes are made gradually under medical supervision, and missed doses should be avoided.
答案: C · "I will hold my urine for as long as I can."
Holding urine allows bacteria to multiply. Regular voiding, good fluid intake, passing urine after intercourse and wiping front to back help reduce recurrence.
答案: B · Jaundice, dark urine, pale stools and itching
When bile cannot reach the gut, conjugated bilirubin enters the blood and urine (dark urine), stools lose their colour, and bile salts in the skin cause itching. Causes include gallstones and pancreatic cancer.
答案: D · Deceptive placebos are unethical and do not show pain is "fake"
A placebo response does not mean pain is not real, and giving placebos without consent is deceptive and damages trust. Pain is assessed with the patient and treated according to the plan.
答案: C · 情绪低落和兴趣丧失持续超过 2 周并影响日常生活
产后抑郁持续超过 2 周,并妨碍照顾自己或婴儿。需要进行筛查(如使用爱丁堡产后抑郁量表)并转诊。
答案: B · 氨甲环酸
氨甲环酸是一种抗纤溶药。早期给药,最好在产后 3 小时内,可减少产后出血导致的死亡。肝素和阿司匹林会增加出血。
答案: A · 补液、有效镇痛,以及孩子缺氧时给氧
补液、及时镇痛(常用阿片类药物)、保暖,以及血氧饱和度低时给氧是关键。寒冷引起血管收缩,可能加重镰变。
答案: C · Apply firm, direct pressure just above the puncture site and call for help
Bleeding from an arterial puncture is controlled by firm pressure just above the site (over the artery), while help is called. The child is kept still with the leg straight, and vital signs and the limb are assessed.
答案: D · "You feel that people here don't really know you?"
Reflecting the patient's concern invites them to explore it. Defending the doctor, reassuring falsely or asking "why" all close the conversation down.
答案: D · Borderline personality disorder
In borderline personality disorder, mood shifts are short-lived, often hours, and are usually triggered by interpersonal events. Bipolar episodes last days to weeks and are not mainly reactive to relationships.
答案: T = 99.9 °F
温度:°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9,°F = °C × 9/5 + 32。从 °F 换算时先减 32 再乘,从 °C 换算时先乘再加 32。快速核对:37 °C 为 98.6 °F,每 1 °C 相当于 1.8 °F。
答案: N = 3
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: V = 3 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 10 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.2 mL。
答案: V = 7 mL
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: V = 315 mL
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
答案: D = 16 mg/h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: U = 1.47 mL/kg/h
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 7.3 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 7 h 20 min,所以袋子大约在 03:20 输完。
答案: M = 2
格拉斯哥昏迷量表:把三个方面的最佳反应相加。睁眼 E:4 自发,3 对声音或言语,2 对压迫,1 无。言语 V:5 定向正常,4 意识模糊,3 用词不恰当,2 发出无法理解的声音,1 无。运动 M:6 遵嘱动作,5 定位,4 正常屈曲(回缩),3 异常屈曲,2 伸展,1 无。总分为 3 至 15。头部损伤后,13–15 通常称为轻度,9–12 为中度,3–8 为重度。
答案: 中低
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
即使总分低,单项得 3 分也需要紧急会诊。
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