感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
插导尿管时使用哪种技术?
For a healthy adult having planned surgery, until how long before anaesthesia can water usually still be taken?
Why are patients on long-term corticosteroids at higher risk from infections?
A nurse often skips barcode scanning to save time, as many colleagues do. In a just culture, how is this behavior classed?
A patient wants to leave the hospital against medical advice. What should the nurse do?
在繁忙的班次中,有四项任务到期。护士应首先做哪一项?
A patient with COPD and known carbon dioxide retention needs a nebulised bronchodilator. How should it usually be given?
An older patient's blood pressure is 142/80 mmHg lying and 116/72 mmHg after standing for three minutes, and they feel dizzy. What does this show?
Two sets of blood cultures are ordered for a patient with suspected sepsis. How are they best collected?
A patient has a continuous heparin infusion for a pulmonary embolism. A new nurse plans to adjust the infusion using today's INR of 1.1. What should the experienced nurse explain?
肝素如何产生抗凝作用?
哪类药物与 ACE 抑制剂合用可能导致危及生命的高钾血症?
胸腔引流管中的液面不再波动。这可能意味着什么?
A heavy smoker is having surgery tomorrow and asks whether stopping smoking now is pointless. Which reply is most accurate?
Which approach helps most when talking to a patient with expressive aphasia?
一名长期大剂量服用泼尼松龙的患者在肠道手术后第三天。他们只主诉轻度腹痛,但心率升至 115 次/分,体温 37.4 °C。为什么护士应特别担忧?
Why is blood lactate measured when sepsis is suspected?
A 76-year-old with a past peptic ulcer needs long-term anti-inflammatory treatment for arthritis. Which plan best reduces GI bleeding risk?
Which reflex causes the newborn's toes to fan out when the sole is stroked from heel to toe?
A newborn in the first hours sneezes, has a high-pitched cry, tremors and loose stools. The mother took opioids throughout pregnancy. Which intervention is most appropriate first?
A child with suspected measles is admitted. Which precaution is most important?
A formula-fed infant is diagnosed with cow's milk protein allergy. Which formula is usually advised?
A patient with PTSD begins to dissociate during a conversation. Which grounding technique can the nurse use?
A patient who has worked well with the nurse for three weeks becomes angry and refuses to attend their sessions after being told that discharge is planned for next week. What is the best interpretation?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的体温为 95.2 °F。用 °C = (°F − 32) × 5/9 把它换算为摄氏度T。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 血清肌酐结果为 1.5 mg/dL。按肌酐 1 mg/dL = 88.4 µmol/L,求以 µmol/L 表示的c,取到最接近的整数。
一名体重 40 kg 的儿童按 2 mg/kg 处方用药。原液浓度为 50 mg/mL。请抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
处方为 2950 单位的药物,药液规格为 5000 单位/mL。请用 1 mL 注射器抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
用滴系数为 10 滴/mL 的输液器在 5 小时内输入 250 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
一袋液体在 50 mL 中含药 500 mg,以 5 mL/h 的速度输注。患者每小时获得多少毫克 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。患者体重 49 kg。求平均尿量 U,以 mL/kg/h 计。 保留两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体用输液泵以 80 mL/h 输注。到 07:00 时已输入 200 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 完全受限; 潮湿程度: 偶尔潮湿; 活动: 局限于椅子; 活动能力: 轻度受限; 营养: 极好; 摩擦力和剪切力: 有问题。求 Braden 总分B。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 非常受限; 潮湿程度: 持续潮湿; 活动: 局限于椅子; 活动能力: 不受限制; 营养: 非常差; 摩擦力和剪切力: 有问题。使用的分级为:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度,13–14 中度,10–12 高,9 或以下极高。点击风险等级。
答案: D · 无菌技术
导尿管采用无菌技术和无菌物品插入,以减少导管相关尿路感染。
答案: B · Up to 2 hours before
Standard guidance allows clear fluids up to 2 hours and food up to 6 hours before elective anaesthesia. Long fasting causes thirst, dehydration and discomfort without added safety.
答案: A · Steroids suppress the immune response and can hide signs of infection
Corticosteroids reduce white cell activity and inflammation, so infections develop more easily and may cause less fever or redness. Nurses watch closely for subtle signs.
答案: B · At-risk behavior, managed by coaching and fixing the system pressures behind it
At-risk behavior is a choice whose risk is not recognized or is believed to be justified, often because shortcuts have become normal. It is managed by coaching and removing the pressures behind it, while reckless behavior may need disciplinary action.
答案: B · Inform the provider, explain the risks and document the discussion
A competent adult has the right to leave. The nurse informs the provider, makes sure the patient understands the risks and documents it; holding the patient against their will may be false imprisonment.
答案: D · 为疑似脓毒症的患者给予首剂静脉抗生素
早期使用抗生素可提高脓毒症的存活率,最好在识别后一小时内给予。其他任务是常规的,可以等待。
答案: A · Driven by compressed air, with oxygen given separately if needed
Nebulisers driven by high-flow oxygen can raise PaCO2 in patients at risk. Air-driven nebulisers are used, with supplementary oxygen via nasal cannulae to keep saturation in the target range.
答案: A · Postural hypotension
A fall in systolic pressure of 20 mmHg or more (here 26 mmHg) on standing, especially with symptoms, indicates postural hypotension. Causes include medicines, dehydration and autonomic problems.
答案: A · From two separate venipuncture sites, using strict aseptic technique
Taking cultures from two separate sites helps distinguish true bacteremia (growth in both sets) from skin contamination (growth in only one). The skin is cleaned carefully, the bottle tops are disinfected, and cultures are taken before antibiotics.
答案: C · Heparin is adjusted using the aPTT or anti-Xa level, not the INR
Unfractionated heparin infusions are adjusted using the aPTT or anti-factor Xa level according to protocol. The INR monitors warfarin and is little affected by heparin at usual doses. Using the wrong test can cause under- or over-anticoagulation.核对依据: Partial Thromboplastin Time (PTT) Test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026); Prothrombin Time Test and INR (PT/INR) · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024)
答案: B · 它增强抗凝血酶的作用,使凝血酶和 Xa 因子失活
肝素与抗凝血酶结合,大大加速其对凝血酶和 Xa 因子的灭活。低分子肝素主要作用于 Xa 因子。
答案: A · 保钾利尿剂,如螺内酯
ACE 抑制剂降低醛固酮,螺内酯阻断其受体;两者合用减少钾排泄,可能使血钾危险升高。
答案: D · 肺已复张,或引流管扭曲、堵塞
肺完全复张并封闭管口时可出现波动消失,但引流管扭曲、被血块堵塞或患者压住管子时也会如此。应评估患者和管路,并上报。
答案: A · Stopping even today lowers carbon monoxide levels before surgery
Carboxyhaemoglobin falls substantially within about 12–24 hours of stopping, improving oxygen delivery. Longer abstinence improves airway function, wound healing and reduces complications further. Any stop is beneficial, and support should be offered.
答案: B · Ask questions that can be answered with yes, no or a gesture
In expressive aphasia, comprehension is largely preserved. Short, closed questions, extra time, gestures and picture or word boards help. Shouting does not help, and constantly finishing sentences can frustrate the patient.
答案: A · 类固醇可掩盖发热、疼痛和腹膜刺激征,隐藏并发症
长期使用类固醇会减弱发热、疼痛和腹肌紧张,因此吻合口漏、脓肿或穿孔可能只表现为心动过速等细微征象。护士应全面评估并及早上报。这些患者在手术前后还需要类固醇覆盖,以预防肾上腺危象。
答案: C · A raised level suggests poor tissue perfusion
A high lactate signals tissue hypoperfusion and higher risk of death in sepsis. It helps guide fluid resuscitation and escalation, and it is repeated to check the response.
答案: B · Consider an alternative; if an NSAID is needed, add a PPI
Older age and a previous ulcer greatly increase NSAID-related bleeding. Safer options are considered first; if an NSAID is needed, the lowest effective dose for the shortest time is used with gastroprotection such as a PPI.
答案: D · Babinski reflex
The Babinski reflex, fanning of the toes with dorsiflexion of the big toe, is normal in infants until about 1 year. Pressing the sole near the toes gives the plantar grasp instead.
答案: C · A quiet, dim room, swaddling and small, frequent feeds
Neonatal abstinence (withdrawal) is managed first with non-drug care: low stimulation, swaddling, skin-to-skin, responsive feeding and rooming-in. Medication is added if scores stay high. Naloxone can precipitate seizures.
答案: A · Airborne precautions, ideally in a negative-pressure room
Measles spreads through the air and can remain in a room for up to about 2 hours. Airborne precautions, a negative-pressure room where available and immune staff are required.
答案: B · An extensively hydrolysed formula
Extensively hydrolysed formulas contain milk proteins broken into small pieces that rarely trigger allergy; amino acid formulas are used for severe cases. Lactose-free formula still contains cow's milk protein, goat's milk proteins cross-react, and rice milk is unsuitable for infants.
答案: D · Ask her to name things she can see, hear and touch in the room right now
Grounding techniques use the senses to bring the person back to the here and now. Asking for details of the trauma during dissociation can deepen distress.
答案: D · The patient is reacting to the coming end of the relationship
Anger, withdrawal or return of symptoms are common responses to termination. The nurse acknowledges the feelings, reviews progress and helps the patient prepare for the ending.
答案: T = 35.1 °C
温度:°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9,°F = °C × 9/5 + 32。从 °F 换算时先减 32 再乘,从 °C 换算时先乘再加 32。快速核对:37 °C 为 98.6 °F,每 1 °C 相当于 1.8 °F。
答案: c = 133 µmol/L
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: V = 1.6 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 10 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.2 mL。
答案: V = 0.59 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 1 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.01 mL。
答案: R = 8 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:8 滴/分。
答案: D = 50 mg/h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: U = 2.1 mL/kg/h
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 10 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 10 h 00 min,所以袋子大约在 17:00 输完。
答案: B = 14
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
答案: 高风险
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
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