感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
Which measure is appropriate for a patient with a fever who feels hot and uncomfortable?
一名成年患者缺乏就某项治疗作出决定的能力,且没有预先决定。应如何作出决定(英格兰和威尔士)?
Which toy is safest for a toddler?
A woman in late pregnancy is choking and cannot speak or cough. Which technique should the rescuer use?
A patient’s peripheral IV site is swollen, pale and cool, and the infusion has slowed. What should the nurse do first?
在患者首次使用吗啡 15 分钟后,一名护理助理测量了生命体征。他们报告呼吸频率为 10 次/分,并说患者很难叫醒。护士应怎么做?
After a laparoscopic cholecystectomy, a patient has pain in the shoulder tip. What is the most likely cause?
A patient who used sildenafil the day before develops chest pain. Why is glyceryl trinitrate (GTN, nitroglycerin) normally avoided?
A patient has macrocytic anemia with numbness and tingling of the feet and poor balance. Which deficiency is most likely?
一份 aPTT 结果极高,但护士得知样本是从输注肝素的那只手臂采集的。最好的措施是什么?
Which technique is correct when giving subcutaneous enoxaparin from a prefilled syringe?
一名两周前开始服用 SSRI 的老年女性现在出现意识混乱,血钠偏低。最可能的机制是什么?
一名刚开始服用降压药的患者起床时感到头晕。正确的建议是什么?
Two days after coronary artery bypass surgery, a patient feels palpitations. The pulse is irregularly irregular at 140/min and BP is 112/70 mmHg. Which rhythm is most likely?
甲状腺手术一周后,一名患者的声音仍然嘶哑无力。最可能的并发症是什么?
A patient with SIADH needs IV fluid. Which fluid is most likely to worsen the hyponatraemia?
Dysphagia that started with solids and now includes liquids, with weight loss, most suggests which cause?
上腹部手术后第 2 天,一名患者体温 37.8 °C,未吸氧时 SpO₂ 93%,双肺底呼吸音减弱。由于疼痛,他们没有使用激励式肺量计。最恰当的护理计划是什么?
Why is congenital hypothyroidism included in newborn screening?
一名正在输注硫酸镁的产妇呼吸频率为 10 次/分,膝腱反射消失。护士应首先怎么做?
A child's asthma action plan shows he is in the yellow zone. What should he do?
Which IV fluid is usually used for a fluid bolus in a child with shock?
Which finding in a patient with anorexia nervosa is most concerning?
一名服用 MAOI 的患者从聚会回来,出现后脑勺剧烈头痛、颈部僵硬和心悸。护士应首先做什么?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者身高 5 ft 9 in。按 1 ft = 12 in 和 1 in = 2.54 cm,求以厘米表示的身高h,取到最接近的整厘米。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个班次中,患者摄入了1½ tsp / 止咳糖浆, ¼ 杯 / 茶, 3 fl oz / 果汁, 1 tbsp / 液体营养补充剂。按给出的等量关系,求以 mL 表示的口服总摄入量V。
一名体重 36 kg 的儿童按 5 mg/kg 处方用药。原液浓度为 50 mg/mL。请抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
一名患者体重 118.8 lb。医嘱为单次剂量 1 mg/kg,储备液为 5 mL 中含 200 mg。按 1 kg = 2.2 lb 计算,你应给予多少容量 V? 保留一位小数。
医嘱要求以 25 mL/h 输液,但没有输液泵。改用滴系数为 60 gtt/mL 的输液器重力滴注。求滴速 R,以每分钟滴数表示。
将 500 mg 药物稀释于 500 mL 中,通过滴系数为 60 gtt/mL 的输液器重力滴注。医嘱为每小时 60 mg。求滴速 R,以每分钟滴数表示。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。 冰屑按其体积的一半计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份 1000 mL 的输液于 19:00 开始以 125 mL/h 输注。4 小时后速率改为 75 mL/h,之后不再改变。从开始算起多少小时 t 后袋子会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Morse 跌倒评分评估一位练习患者:过去 3 个月内的跌倒史: 是; 次要诊断: 是; 行走辅助: 扶着家具; 静脉输液或封管: 否; 步态: 受损; 精神状态: 了解自身局限。求 Morse 总分MFS。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 出生后 5 分钟,一名练习用新生儿的表现为:全身皮肤粉红,心率 110 次/分,刺激时哭叫、咳嗽或打喷嚏,四肢略有屈曲,呼吸良好,哭声响亮。 为 Apgar 评分并点击该评分的解读。
答案: C · Light bedclothes, plenty of fluids and a prescribed antipyretic
Light clothing, fluids and antipyretics such as paracetamol (acetaminophen) increase comfort and replace fluid lost through sweating. Very cold sponging causes shivering, which produces heat.
答案: A · 以患者的最佳利益为准,考虑其以往的意愿,并征询其身边亲近的人
为缺乏能力者作出的决定必须以其最佳利益为准,考虑其过去和现在的意愿、价值观和信仰,并征询照护者和家属的意见。应选择限制最少的方案。
答案: D · A large toy with no small parts that can come off
Small parts, marbles, magnets and uninflated or broken balloons are choking hazards for young children. Toys should be large, sturdy and suited to the child’s age.
答案: A · Chest thrusts
For people in late pregnancy or who are very obese, chest thrusts replace abdominal thrusts because the rescuer cannot get around the abdomen effectively. Blind finger sweeps can push the object deeper.
答案: C · Stop the infusion and remove the cannula
A cool, pale, swollen site suggests infiltration. The nurse stops the infusion, removes the cannula, elevates the limb and restarts the IV at another site as needed.
答案: A · 立即前往,唤醒患者,支持呼吸,并按医嘱准备纳洛酮
呼吸缓慢和难以唤醒提示阿片类药物引起的呼吸抑制。护士应立即评估患者,刺激患者,支持呼吸,按医嘱给予纳洛酮并上报。等待或不看患者就打电话会浪费关键的几分钟。
答案: D · Gas used during the operation irritating the diaphragm
Carbon dioxide used to inflate the abdomen can irritate the diaphragm, causing referred shoulder-tip pain. It usually settles within a few days with mobilisation and analgesia.
答案: C · The combination can cause a severe, dangerous fall in blood pressure
PDE5 inhibitors such as sildenafil enhance the vasodilating effect of nitrates, which can cause profound hypotension. Patients should always be asked about these drugs before nitrates are given.
答案: C · Vitamin B12
B12 and folate deficiencies both cause macrocytic anemia, but B12 deficiency also damages the spinal cord and peripheral nerves, causing numbness, tingling and poor balance. Neurological damage can become permanent if treatment is delayed.核对依据: Vitamin B12 deficiency anemia - Medical Encyclopedia · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026); Vitamin B12 level - Medical Encyclopedia · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026)
答案: C · 在调整剂量之前,要求从对侧手臂重新采样
从输液手臂抽取的血液含有来自输液的肝素,因此 aPTT 假性偏高。来自另一只手臂的样本才能给出真实的结果。根据错误的结果改变剂量可能导致血栓形成。核对依据: Partial Thromboplastin Time (PTT) Test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026)
答案: C · Inject into the abdomen away from the navel and do not rub the site afterwards
Enoxaparin is given deep subcutaneously, usually in the abdomen at least 5 cm from the umbilicus. The air bubble in the prefilled syringe is not expelled, and rubbing the site increases bruising.
答案: C · SSRI 引起抗利尿激素分泌不当,导致水潴留
SSRI 可引起抗利尿激素分泌不当综合征(SIADH),尤其在老年人中。水潴留稀释血钠,导致低钠血症和意识混乱。
答案: C · 站起来之前先在床边坐一会儿
开始降压治疗时,体位性(直立性)低血压很常见。缓慢改变体位可降低跌倒风险。持续存在症状时应报告,以便测量卧位和立位血压并复核剂量。
答案: B · Atrial fibrillation
New atrial fibrillation affects a large proportion of patients in the first days after cardiac surgery, often due to inflammation, electrolyte shifts and stress. Management includes a 12-lead ECG, checking potassium and magnesium, rate or rhythm control and considering anticoagulation.
答案: D · 喉返神经损伤
喉返神经紧邻甲状腺走行,支配大部分喉肌。损伤会引起声音嘶哑;双侧损伤可引起喘鸣和气道梗阻。插管引起的轻度声音嘶哑通常几天内好转。甲状旁腺损伤引起低钙血症,伴麻木和痉挛。
答案: C · 5% glucose (dextrose, D5W)
5% glucose (5% dextrose, D5W) provides free water once the glucose is metabolised. In SIADH, this water is kept, so sodium falls further. Hypotonic fluids are avoided. Hypertonic saline is used for severe symptomatic hyponatraemia.
答案: D · A narrowing such as an oesophageal tumour
Progressive dysphagia, solids first then liquids, with weight loss, is typical of a mechanical obstruction such as oesophageal cancer or a stricture. It needs an urgent referral for endoscopy.
答案: A · 更好地控制疼痛、坐起、深呼吸、活动并上报
上腹部手术后,当疼痛限制深呼吸时,肺底部肺不张很常见。良好的镇痛、直立体位、深呼吸练习、激励式肺量计、支托下咳嗽和早期活动可使肺重新扩张。应报告这些发现,因为它们可能发展为肺炎;需要时给氧至目标值。
答案: D · Early treatment prevents brain damage
Untreated congenital hypothyroidism causes poor growth and intellectual disability. Daily levothyroxine started in the first weeks allows normal development.
答案: A · 停止输注并紧急通知医疗人员,同时备好葡萄糖酸钙
呼吸抑制和反射消失提示镁中毒。应停止输注,支持呼吸,寻求帮助,检测镁水平,并按医嘱备好葡萄糖酸钙。
答案: A · Use the reliever as the plan says and contact the doctor if it does not help
In the yellow zone (often 50–80% of personal best), the child follows the plan, usually extra reliever doses, and seeks medical advice if symptoms do not improve. Red-zone symptoms need emergency help.
答案: D · An isotonic crystalloid such as 0.9% sodium chloride
Isotonic crystalloids such as 0.9% sodium chloride or balanced solutions are used for boluses because they expand intravascular volume. Hypotonic fluids such as 5% glucose move into cells and can cause hyponatraemia and brain swelling.
答案: C · A resting heart rate of 38/min
Severe bradycardia suggests cardiovascular compromise from starvation and can lead to dangerous arrhythmias. It is a common reason for urgent medical admission.
答案: C · 测量血压并紧急通知开医嘱者
这些是高血压危象的征象。应测量血压,对她进行观察,并紧急寻求医疗帮助。咖啡因会使情况更糟。
答案: h = 175 cm
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: V = 172.5 mL
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: V = 3.6 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 10 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.2 mL。
答案: V = 1.4 mL
Dose calculation: the amount to give equals what is prescribed divided by what you have, times the quantity it comes in: amount = (desired dose/stock strength) × stock volume. Always keep the units the same (convert g to mg, mg to mcg first) and check that the answer is sensible.
答案: R = 25 gtt/min
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
使用微滴输液器(60 gtt/mL)时,gtt/min 等于 mL/h。
答案: R = 60 gtt/min
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: I = 2050 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: t = 10.7 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 10 h 40 min,所以袋子大约在 05:40 输完。
答案: MFS = 90
Morse 跌倒评分:六个条目。跌倒史:否 0 分,是 25 分。次要诊断:否 0 分,是 15 分。行走辅助:无、卧床休息或护士协助 0 分;拐杖、手杖或助行器 15 分;扶着家具 30 分。静脉输液或封管:否 0 分,是 20 分。步态:正常、卧床休息或轮椅 0 分;虚弱 10 分;受损 20 分。精神状态:了解自身局限 0 分;高估或忘记自身局限 15 分。总分为 0 至 125。各医院的风险分界值不同;常用的一套是 0–24 低风险,25–44 中度风险,45 及以上为高风险。
答案: 令人放心
Apgar 评分:五项体征,每项评 0、1 或 2 分,在出生后 1 分钟和 5 分钟检查。外观(肤色):青紫或苍白 0 分,躯干粉红、四肢青紫 1 分,全身粉红 2 分。脉搏:无 0 分,低于 100 次/分 1 分,100 次/分或以上 2 分。反射(反射应激性):无 0 分,做鬼脸 1 分,哭叫、咳嗽或打喷嚏 2 分。肌张力(活动):松软 0 分,略有屈曲 1 分,活动活跃 2 分。呼吸:无 0 分,缓慢或不规则、哭声微弱 1 分,良好、哭声响亮 2 分。总分 7–10 为令人放心,4–6 为中度异常,0–3 为低。
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