感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
According to Erikson, what is the main developmental task of older adulthood?
An older patient's leg wound has become more painful and has a new unpleasant smell, but there is no fever. What does this suggest?
A patient has a weak left leg. Which instruction about using a cane is correct?
两种不同药物的外观相似药瓶并排存放,一名护士差点拿错。下列哪种应对最体现公正文化?
A patient with type 1 diabetes has vomited since morning and cannot eat. Which action is most important?
After a head injury, a patient passes large amounts of very dilute urine, is thirsty and has a rising serum sodium. Which condition is most likely?
After a laparoscopic cholecystectomy, a patient has pain in the shoulder tip. What is the most likely cause?
为什么浓氯化钾绝不能快速静脉推注?
A patient with hyperkalemia is prescribed an oral potassium binder such as patiromer or sodium zirconium cyclosilicate. How does this drug lower potassium?
The nurse teaches a patient with iron-deficiency anemia who is starting oral iron. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
Why is a spacer recommended with a metered-dose inhaler?
对于一级消除的药物,剂量加倍(给药间隔不变)会:
Why must intravenous potassium chloride never be given as a rapid push or undiluted?
After a fall onto the chest, part of a patient's chest wall moves inward when they breathe in and outward when they breathe out. What does this indicate?
How does the nurse test the facial nerve (VII)?
一名颅内压升高的患者需要气管内吸痰。哪种做法最恰当?
Which advice helps a person with diabetes prevent foot ulcers?
On day 3 after surgery, a patient has a temperature of 38.6 °C, respiratory rate 24/min, pulse 118/min, BP 92/58 mmHg and new confusion. What should the nurse do?
一名子痫前期的女性主诉剧烈头痛并看到闪光。这提示什么?
A preterm baby born at 28 weeks is at risk of intraventricular haemorrhage. Which nursing measure reduces this risk?
一名患哮喘的学龄儿童每天使用吸入性糖皮质激素。护士应教给他们什么?
A child with eczema suddenly develops clusters of painful, punched-out blisters and erosions with a fever. What should the nurse suspect?
血清锂浓度的哪个范围通常被引用为维持治疗的治疗范围?
A patient who takes fluoxetine in the evening says he has had trouble falling asleep since starting it. What should the nurse suggest?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个剂量记录在 3:05 PM。哪个条目是 24 小时制中的同一时间?点击它。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个班次中,患者摄入了1 杯 / 茶, 1 tsp / 止咳糖浆, 1 tbsp / 液体营养补充剂。按给出的等量关系,求以 mL 表示的口服总摄入量V。
一名体重 28 kg 的儿童按 7.5 mg/kg 处方用药。原液浓度为 50 mg/mL。请抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
你需要用 50%(w/v)储备液配制 250 mL 1%(w/v)溶液。 你需要多少容量的储备液 V₁?
医嘱要求以 75 mL/h 输液,但没有输液泵。改用滴系数为 20 gtt/mL 的输液器重力滴注。求滴速 R,以每分钟滴数表示。
一袋液体在 250 mL 中含药 500 mg,以 15 mL/h 的速度输注。患者每小时获得多少毫克 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 500 mL 的液体于 12:00 开始用输液泵以 100 mL/h 输注。到 13:30 时袋中还剩多少 mL V?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的脉搏为 83 次/分,血压为 77/46 mmHg。求休克指数SI = HR/SBP。取到两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 14 次/分,SpO₂ 99%吸室内空气,血压 222/134 mmHg,脉搏 70 次/分,清醒,体温 37.3 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
答案: A · Integrity versus despair
In late adulthood people review their lives. A sense of meaning brings integrity, while regret can lead to despair. Reminiscence can support this stage.
答案: C · A possible wound infection that needs assessment and reporting
Increasing pain, odour, new exudate or delayed healing can signal infection even without fever, especially in older adults. The wound is assessed, the change reported and a swab taken if policy advises.
答案: D · Hold the cane in the right hand, on the stronger side
The cane is held on the strong side and moved forward with the weak leg, so it shares the weight that the weak leg cannot take. It is kept close to the body for stability.
答案: A · 上报并改进系统,例如把药瓶分开存放
公正文化认识到人为失误往往源于系统设计。把外观相似的药物分开存放、使用标签和 Tall Man 大写标注可防止再次发生。只责怪个人而不处理隐患,危险依然存在。
答案: A · Check the blood glucose and ketones and contact the provider
Vomiting in type 1 diabetes can lead quickly to diabetic ketoacidosis. Glucose and ketones are checked and the provider is contacted; insulin is usually not stopped completely during illness.
答案: A · Diabetes insipidus
Damage to the pituitary or hypothalamus can stop the release of antidiuretic hormone, causing diabetes insipidus. The patient loses water, so urine is dilute and sodium rises; SIADH causes the opposite.
答案: B · Gas used during the operation irritating the diaphragm
Carbon dioxide used to inflate the abdomen can irritate the diaphragm, causing referred shoulder-tip pain. It usually settles within a few days with mobilisation and analgesia.
答案: C · 可能引起致命性心律失常
浓钾推注可使心脏停搏。钾必须稀释后以控制的速度给药,通常使用输液泵。
答案: A · It binds potassium in the gut so it leaves in the stool
Potassium binders exchange potassium in the gut for another ion, so potassium is removed from the body in the stool. They act over hours, so they are not used alone for emergencies; calcium protects the heart, and insulin with glucose shifts potassium into cells quickly.核对依据: High potassium level · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: B · "I'll take my iron tablet with a big glass of milk"
Calcium in milk, as well as antacids and tea, reduces iron absorption, so iron should not be taken with them. Vitamin C improves absorption, dark stools are expected, and iron overdose is a serious poisoning risk in young children.核对依据: Iron deficiency anemia - Medical Encyclopedia · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025); Iron in diet - Medical Encyclopedia · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: A · More drug reaches the lungs and less stays in the mouth
A spacer holds the aerosol so it can be inhaled slowly, without precise coordination. This improves lung delivery and reduces mouth side effects such as thrush from inhaled steroids.
答案: D · 使稳态浓度加倍,但不改变达到稳态的时间
一级动力学中,稳态浓度与给药速率成正比,但仍需约 4–5 个半衰期才能达到。
答案: D · A sudden high potassium level can cause cardiac arrest
Rapid or concentrated IV potassium can cause cardiac arrest. It is given diluted, by infusion, at controlled rates (often with a pump and ECG monitoring for higher rates). Concentrated ampoules are tightly controlled in hospitals because of fatal errors.
答案: D · A flail chest from ribs broken in more than one place
A flail segment occurs when adjacent ribs are fractured in two or more places, so the segment moves paradoxically. It is often associated with lung contusion and respiratory failure. Management includes oxygen, strong analgesia and sometimes ventilation or surgical fixation.
答案: B · Ask them to raise the eyebrows, shut the eyes tightly and smile
The facial nerve moves the muscles of the face. Asking the patient to raise the eyebrows, close the eyes, puff the cheeks and smile shows any weakness. Facial sensation is carried by the trigeminal nerve.
答案: D · 预先给氧,每次吸引时间要短,并限制吸引次数
吸痰通过咳嗽、低氧和高碳酸血症升高颅内压。仅在需要时进行,并预先给氧,每次不超过约 10–15 秒,次数要少,头部保持抬高并居中。有些病房可使用镇静或利多卡因。
答案: D · Check the feet every day and never walk barefoot
Peripheral neuropathy and poor circulation mean injuries can go unnoticed. Daily inspection, well-fitting footwear, checking water temperature and regular podiatry help prevent ulcers.
答案: D · Escalate urgently and start the sepsis pathway
These findings suggest sepsis with poor perfusion. Urgent medical review and a sepsis bundle, including blood cultures, antibiotics within an hour, lactate, fluids and urine output monitoring, improve survival.
答案: C · 伴有严重表现的子痫前期,有发生子痫的风险
新出现的剧烈头痛和视觉障碍是重度子痫前期的脑部征象,可能先于抽搐出现。需要紧急上报。
答案: D · Minimal handling with the head in midline
Preterm babies have fragile germinal matrix vessels. Minimal handling, midline head position, slight elevation of the head and avoiding rapid fluid or pressure changes help prevent bleeding into the ventricles.
答案: A · 每次用药后漱口,并使用储雾罐
吸入性糖皮质激素是控制药物,需每天使用。漱口可降低口腔念珠菌感染和声音嘶哑的风险,储雾罐可改善药物向肺部的输送。发作时使用短效缓解药物。
答案: B · Eczema herpeticum, which needs urgent antiviral treatment
Eczema herpeticum is a widespread herpes simplex infection of eczematous skin. It can spread quickly and cause serious illness, including eye involvement, so the child needs urgent medical review and antiviral treatment.
答案: C · 约 0.6 至 1.2 mmol/L(目标范围因指南而异)
许多教材对维持治疗引用 0.6–1.2 mmol/L(mEq/L),有些指南推荐较低的目标,如 0.6–0.8。高于约 1.5 的水平与中毒相关。请遵循当地实验室和开医嘱者的规定。
答案: B · Discuss with the prescriber whether he can take it in the morning instead
Fluoxetine can be activating and cause insomnia. Taking it in the morning, with the prescriber's agreement, often helps. Stopping suddenly or using alcohol is unsafe.
答案: 15:05
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: V = 260 mL
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: V = 4.2 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 10 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.2 mL。
答案: V₁ = 5 mL
Solution strengths: a percentage strength is grams per 100 mL, so 1% = 1 g/100 mL = 10 mg/mL. A ratio strength 1:1000 means 1 g in 1000 mL = 1 mg/mL; 1:10 000 is 0.1 mg/mL. For a dilution the amount of drug stays the same: C₁·V₁ = C₂·V₂.
答案: R = 25 gtt/min
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
答案: D = 30 mg/h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: I = 1850 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: V = 350 mL
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: SI = 1.08
血压数值:脉压 PP = SBP − DBP。平均动脉压 MAP ≈ (SBP + 2·DBP)/3 = DBP + PP/3,这是基于正常心率下心脏每搏约有三分之二时间处于舒张期的估算(心率快时准确性下降);MAP 至少约 65 mmHg 是常用的器官灌注目标。休克指数 SI = 心率/SBP,正常约为 0.5–0.7;高于约 1 是休克的警示信号。
1 或更高:在这个练习病例中是休克的警示信号。
答案: 中低
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
即使总分低,单项得 3 分也需要紧急会诊。
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