感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
在实施护理的同时进行记录,主要原因是什么?
During medicines reconciliation, the patient says they take an anticoagulant at home, but it has not been prescribed in hospital. What should the nurse do?
护士接到电话口头医嘱。最安全的做法是什么?
A patient restrained because of violent behavior is now calm, oriented and following instructions. What should the nurse do?
A patient taking lithium has vomiting, diarrhea and a new coarse tremor. What should the nurse do?
A trauma patient has an open leg fracture, absent breath sounds on one side, a trachea shifted to the other side and a falling blood pressure. Which problem is the priority?
Why can a very low serum albumin contribute to oedema?
A patient with metastatic breast cancer is confused and constipated, with a corrected calcium of 3.3 mmol/L (about 13.2 mg/dL). What is usually the first treatment?
A patient on warfarin has an INR of 7.8 and a nosebleed. Which medication would the nurse expect the provider to prescribe?
A woman with preeclampsia is receiving IV magnesium sulfate. Her urine output has fallen and her creatinine is rising. Why is this a concern?
氟哌啶醇等典型抗精神病药主要通过阻断什么起作用?
A patient taking metoprolol is also started on verapamil. Which adverse effect is most likely?
Rheumatic heart disease most often follows which infection?
一名 82 岁的社区获得性肺炎患者新近出现意识混乱,呼吸频率 32 次/分,血压 88/52 mmHg,尿素 9 mmol/L。这提示什么?
A patient with atrial fibrillation has had an ischaemic stroke. Which long-term medicine type most reduces the risk of another stroke?
全甲状腺切除术后,一名患者焦虑,出现喘鸣和颈部紧张性肿胀。护士首先应做什么?
A patient takes co-codamol at home (a combination tablet sold under different names in different countries). Why should the nurse check this before giving regular paracetamol (acetaminophen)?
A patient is booked for a urea breath test for H. pylori. Which medicine should usually be stopped 2 weeks before the test?
A preterm baby on feeds develops a swollen abdomen, bloody stools and feeding intolerance. Which condition is suspected?
Which finding in a newborn at 6 hours requires the most urgent action?
A toddler refuses a liquid medicine. Which approach is appropriate?
A child with leukaemia and a very high white cell count starts chemotherapy. Which blood results suggest tumour lysis syndrome?
Which measurement should be monitored regularly in a patient taking venlafaxine?
A patient on daily methadone maintenance has had abdominal surgery. Which statement about his pain management is correct?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次体重换算得到 80.3382 kg。 本练习的规则是:体重取到最接近的十分之一千克。你记录的数值x是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个班次中,患者摄入了½ tsp / 止咳糖浆, 4 tbsp / 液体营养补充剂, ¾ 杯 / 茶。按给出的等量关系,求以 mL 表示的口服总摄入量V。
一支肾上腺素预充式注射器标示为 1:10 000(0.1 mg/mL)。医嘱为心脏骤停时 1 mg 静脉注射(IV)。你应给多少体积 V?
一名患者身高 111 cm,体重 30 kg。医嘱为 60 mg/m²。用 Mosteller 公式 BSA = √(身高 (cm) × 体重 (kg)/3600) 求剂量 D,以 mg 表示。
医嘱要求以 60 mL/h 输液,但没有输液泵。改用滴系数为 20 gtt/mL 的输液器重力滴注。求滴速 R,以每分钟滴数表示。
一袋液体在 100 mL 中含药 400 mg,以 25 mL/h 的速度输注。患者每小时获得多少毫克 D?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求液体平衡 B = 入量 − 出量,以 mL 计(答案为负表示净丢失)。 冰屑按其体积的一半计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一份 500 mL 的输液于 15:30 开始以 100 mL/h 输注。2 小时后速率改为 50 mL/h,之后不再改变。从开始算起多少小时 t 后袋子会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的脉搏为 66 次/分,血压为 91/55 mmHg。求休克指数SI = HR/SBP。取到两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 出生后 5 分钟,一名练习用新生儿的表现为:躯干粉红,手脚青紫,心率 70 次/分,刺激时哭叫、咳嗽或打喷嚏,四肢略有屈曲,呼吸良好,哭声响亮。 为 Apgar 评分并点击该评分的解读。
答案: B · 准确的记录有助于安全的连续护理,并且是法律文件
及时记录能向团队传达患者状况,支持决策,并作为所提供护理的法律证据。
答案: D · Inform the prescriber so the omission can be reviewed
Unexplained differences between home and hospital medicines are reported to the prescriber. Missed anticoagulants can cause clots, and some omissions are deliberate, for example before surgery.
答案: B · 写下来并向开医嘱者复述确认
写下医嘱并复述,可确认听到的内容无误。根据规定,口头医嘱仅限于紧急情况,之后须由开医嘱者签字。
答案: C · Remove the restraints, because the reason for them has ended
Restraints are used only as long as needed to keep people safe. Once the patient no longer presents a danger, the restraints are removed, even if the order has not yet expired.
答案: A · Hold the next dose and report for an urgent lithium level
Vomiting, diarrhea and a coarse tremor suggest lithium toxicity. The nurse holds the dose and reports so a serum level can be checked; low salt or fluid intake raises lithium levels further.
答案: D · The suspected tension pneumothorax
A shifted trachea, absent breath sounds and hypotension suggest tension pneumothorax, which threatens breathing and circulation within minutes. The fracture is important, but it comes after the immediate life threat.
答案: D · It lowers the oncotic pressure that holds fluid in the blood vessels
Albumin creates oncotic pressure, drawing fluid into the capillaries. When it is low, as in liver disease, nephrotic syndrome or malnutrition, fluid leaks into the tissues.
答案: A · IV fluid rehydration, followed by a bisphosphonate
Hypercalcaemia of malignancy causes dehydration, so IV fluids are given first, followed by a bisphosphonate to reduce bone resorption. Calcium, renal function and fluid balance are monitored.
答案: B · Vitamin K (phytonadione)
Warfarin blocks vitamin K–dependent clotting factors, and vitamin K restores their production over hours. For serious bleeding, a prothrombin complex concentrate may also be given to replace factors at once. The warfarin is held.核对依据: Label: WARFARIN SODIUM tablet · DailyMed (NLM/FDA) (2012)
答案: C · Magnesium is excreted by the kidneys, so it can build up to toxic levels
Magnesium is cleared by the kidneys, so falling urine output and rising creatinine raise the risk of toxicity. The nurse checks deep tendon reflexes, respiratory rate and level of consciousness, reports the findings and keeps calcium gluconate available as the antidote.核对依据: Magnesium Toxicity (StatPearls) · StatPearls (NCBI Bookshelf) (2026)
答案: C · 多巴胺 D2 受体
氟哌啶醇阻断中脑边缘通路中的 D2 受体,减轻阳性症状。阻断其他通路中的 D2 受体会引起锥体外系反应和催乳素升高。
答案: C · Severe bradycardia and heart block
Beta blockers and non-dihydropyridine calcium channel blockers (verapamil, diltiazem) both slow heart rate and AV conduction. Together they can cause severe bradycardia, heart block and heart failure.
答案: C · A group A streptococcal throat infection
Rheumatic fever is an autoimmune reaction weeks after group A streptococcal pharyngitis. It can permanently damage heart valves, most often the mitral valve. Prompt antibiotic treatment of strep throat prevents it.
答案: D · CURB-65 评分为 5:高风险,需要紧急高级医师评估
该患者得分为 5 分(满分 5 分):意识混乱、尿素 >7 mmol/L、呼吸频率 ≥30 次/分、低血压和年龄 ≥65 岁。这提示重症肺炎,死亡率高,患者同时符合可能脓毒症的标准。需要迅速上报、静脉抗生素、补液,并评估是否需要重症监护。
答案: C · An oral anticoagulant
In AF the main cause of stroke is a clot from the left atrium. Oral anticoagulants such as a DOAC or warfarin prevent this far better than antiplatelets. The start date after a stroke depends on its size and bleeding risk.
答案: D · 呼叫紧急援助:血肿可能压迫气道
伴有喘鸣的迅速增大的颈部血肿是气道急症。应呼叫紧急援助;在许多病房,会在床边拆除夹子或缝线以松解血肿(遵循当地急救程序),然后再进行确定性的气道管理和手术。
答案: D · It already contains paracetamol, so overdose could occur
Co-codamol combines codeine and paracetamol. Giving extra paracetamol can exceed the maximum daily dose and cause liver damage, so all sources of paracetamol are counted.
答案: A · Omeprazole
PPIs suppress H. pylori and can give false-negative breath or stool tests, so they are usually stopped 2 weeks before. Antibiotics are usually stopped 4 weeks before testing.
答案: B · Necrotising enterocolitis
Necrotising enterocolitis mainly affects preterm babies. Signs include abdominal distension, bilious aspirates, bloody stools and instability. Feeds are stopped and the baby is urgently reviewed. Breast milk lowers the risk.
答案: A · Central cyanosis, fast breathing and grunting
Central cyanosis, tachypnoea and grunting indicate respiratory distress and need immediate assessment, oxygen and evaluation for causes such as infection, heart disease or lung problems.
答案: B · Mix it with a small spoonful of food, if the pharmacist says this is safe
Mixing with a small amount of food that will be eaten completely, when the medicine allows it, helps the child take the full dose. Large volumes may not be finished, calling medicine sweets is unsafe and forcing risks aspiration.
答案: A · High potassium, high phosphate, high uric acid and low calcium
Rapid breakdown of tumour cells releases potassium, phosphate and nucleic acids (forming uric acid); phosphate binds calcium, lowering it. This can cause arrhythmias and kidney failure, so hydration, allopurinol or rasburicase and close monitoring are used.
答案: B · Blood pressure
Venlafaxine is an SNRI. By increasing noradrenaline, it can raise blood pressure, particularly at higher doses, so blood pressure is checked regularly.
答案: A · His usual methadone should continue, and additional analgesia is usually needed for acute pain
Maintenance methadone prevents withdrawal but does not treat acute pain. Patients with opioid tolerance often need more analgesia than usual. Withholding pain relief is unsafe and unethical.
答案: x = 80.3 kg
取整:看舍入位后面的那个数字:5 或更大则进位,4 或更小则保持原数字不变。只对最终答案取整,绝不对中间步骤取整。典型的考试规则:1 mL 或以上的体积取到十分位,低于 1 mL 的体积取到百分位,滴速取整到整滴,体重取到一位小数;务必遵循题目所规定的规则。
答案: V = 242.5 mL
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: V = 10 mL
Solution strengths: a percentage strength is grams per 100 mL, so 1% = 1 g/100 mL = 10 mg/mL. A ratio strength 1:1000 means 1 g in 1000 mL = 1 mg/mL; 1:10 000 is 0.1 mg/mL. For a dilution the amount of drug stays the same: C₁·V₁ = C₂·V₂.
美国的标签现在标示 mg/mL(1 mg/mL = 1:1000;0.1 mg/mL = 1:10 000)。切勿静脉推注 1 mg/mL 的肾上腺素。
答案: D = 57.71 mg
Body-surface-area dosing: many cytotoxic and some paediatric doses are prescribed per square metre of body surface area: dose (mg) = dose per m² × BSA (m²). The Mosteller formula estimates BSA = √(height (cm) × weight (kg)/3600).
答案: R = 20 gtt/min
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
答案: D = 100 mg/h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: B = 990 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
为正:摄入的液体多于排出的液体。
答案: t = 8 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 8 h 00 min,所以袋子大约在 23:30 输完。
答案: SI = 0.73
血压数值:脉压 PP = SBP − DBP。平均动脉压 MAP ≈ (SBP + 2·DBP)/3 = DBP + PP/3,这是基于正常心率下心脏每搏约有三分之二时间处于舒张期的估算(心率快时准确性下降);MAP 至少约 65 mmHg 是常用的器官灌注目标。休克指数 SI = 心率/SBP,正常约为 0.5–0.7;高于约 1 是休克的警示信号。
高于通常的 0.5–0.7。
答案: 令人放心
Apgar 评分:五项体征,每项评 0、1 或 2 分,在出生后 1 分钟和 5 分钟检查。外观(肤色):青紫或苍白 0 分,躯干粉红、四肢青紫 1 分,全身粉红 2 分。脉搏:无 0 分,低于 100 次/分 1 分,100 次/分或以上 2 分。反射(反射应激性):无 0 分,做鬼脸 1 分,哭叫、咳嗽或打喷嚏 2 分。肌张力(活动):松软 0 分,略有屈曲 1 分,活动活跃 2 分。呼吸:无 0 分,缓慢或不规则、哭声微弱 1 分,良好、哭声响亮 2 分。总分 7–10 为令人放心,4–6 为中度异常,0–3 为低。
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