感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
Why should enteric-coated tablets not be crushed?
根据《2005年心智能力法》(英格兰和威尔士),下列哪一项是判断一个人能否作出决定的测试内容?
A visitor with a cold wants to see a patient who has severe neutropenia. What should the nurse advise?
A chemical cloud has been released near the hospital, and authorities order “shelter in place”. What should staff do?
哪种定时给药的药物时间要求最严格?
Using ESI, a stable adult with abdominal pain will need blood tests and a CT scan, but has a heart rate of 130/min. Which statement is correct?
A patient with COPD and known carbon dioxide retention needs a nebulised bronchodilator. How should it usually be given?
肠切除术后两天,一名患者疼痛加重、发热、心动过速,伤口引流管中的液体看起来像粪便。最可能发生了什么?
How should a patient collect a clean-catch midstream urine sample?
一名营养不良的患者重新开始进食,第 3 天磷酸盐为 1.2 mg/dL(0.39 mmol/L),伴肌无力和气短。主要风险是什么?
After instilling eye drops, why should the patient press gently on the inner corner of the eye for a minute or two?
A patient with type 2 diabetes starts a high dose of prednisolone for a flare of COPD. Which change should the nurse expect?
When should an adult with cystic fibrosis take pancreatic enzyme capsules?
On day 2 after a surgical tracheostomy, the tube falls out. The patient is breathing but distressed. What should the nurse do first?
关于高渗高血糖状态(HHS),下列哪项说法正确?
Two days after surgery, an 80-year-old woman is quiet, sleepy, slow to answer and eating little. Her daughter says she is "not herself". What should the nurse suspect?
A day after a spinal anaesthetic, a patient has a headache that is worse when sitting up and better when lying flat. What is the most likely cause?
一名已知患前列腺癌的患者报告新发并逐渐加重的背痛和腿部无力。最重要的措施是什么?
产后第 6 天预期出现哪种恶露?
一名产妇在使用缩宫素期间宫缩频繁:过去半小时内每 10 分钟 6 次。胎心监护图正常。最恰当的措施是什么?
哪项是再次接种同一种疫苗的真正禁忌证?
A 5-year-old insists that a tall, thin glass holds more juice than a short, wide glass, although he saw the same amount poured into each. What explains this?
除血锂水平外,长期锂盐治疗还需定期监测哪些检查?
A 20-year-old recovering from a first episode of psychosis smokes cannabis every day. What should the nurse include in teaching?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者的体温为 36.7 °C。用 °F = °C × 9/5 + 32 把它换算为华氏度T。取到一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一张处方写着口服混悬液½ tsp,每天三次,共 10 天。混悬液每瓶 150 mL。按1 tsp = 5 mL,必须提供多少整瓶N才能完成疗程?
需要从 0.5%(w/v)溶液中取 2.5 mg 的剂量。多少容量 V 含有这一剂量?
一名体重 18 kg 的儿童,医嘱为口服混悬液每次 10 mg/kg,该混悬液每 1 mL 含 40 mg。你应给多少体积 V?
医嘱要求以 60 mL/h 输液,但没有输液泵。改用滴系数为 10 gtt/mL 的输液器重力滴注。求滴速 R,以每分钟滴数表示。
一组输液以 25 滴/分的速度经 20 滴/mL 的输液器滴注。袋中还剩 450 mL。还需多少小时 t 才会滴完?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。患者体重 91 kg。求平均尿量 U,以 mL/kg/h 计。 保留两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 500 mL 的液体于 12:45 开始用输液泵以 120 mL/h 输注。到 14:45 时袋中还剩多少 mL V?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一张练习图表记录了 GCS 8,其中 E2 和 V3。记录的运动评分M是多少,它描述的是哪种反应?请给出数字。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 出生后 5 分钟,一名练习用新生儿的表现为:全身皮肤青紫或苍白,心率 75 次/分,刺激时做鬼脸,四肢松软,没有肌张力,无呼吸。 为 Apgar 评分并点击该评分的解读。
答案: A · Crushing removes the coating that protects the stomach or drug
Enteric coatings stop the tablet dissolving until it reaches the small intestine, protecting the stomach lining or the drug from stomach acid. Crushing destroys this protection.
答案: D · 他们能否理解、记住并权衡信息,以及表达决定
如果一个人因心智或大脑功能障碍而不能理解、记住、运用或权衡信息,或不能表达其决定,就缺乏作出该决定的能力。一个不明智的选择本身并不能说明缺乏能力。
答案: B · Postpone the visit until the visitor is well
Patients with severe neutropenia cannot fight infections well. People with respiratory or other infections should not visit until they are well; other visitors perform hand hygiene.
答案: B · Keep everyone inside, close windows and doors and shut off outside air intake
Sheltering in place keeps people inside, away from the hazard. Windows and doors are closed and ventilation systems that bring in outside air are shut off until the all-clear.
答案: C · 随已送到的早餐托盘一起给予的速效胰岛素
速效胰岛素随餐给药;给得晚或不进食可导致血糖过高或过低。其他每日用药稍晚一点给予也无妨。
答案: B · The nurse should consider level 2 because of the danger-zone vital sign
In ESI, a patient who needs two or more resources is level 3, but danger-zone vital signs such as a very fast heart rate should make the nurse consider level 2.
答案: A · Driven by compressed air, with oxygen given separately if needed
Nebulisers driven by high-flow oxygen can raise PaCO2 in patients at risk. Air-driven nebulisers are used, with supplementary oxygen via nasal cannulae to keep saturation in the target range.
答案: C · 吻合口瘘
吻合口瘘使肠内容物进入腹腔,引起腹膜炎和脓毒症。这是需要紧急评估的外科急症。
答案: B · Clean the area, start voiding into the toilet, then catch the middle part
Cleaning the urethral area and discarding the first part of the stream reduce contamination from skin and urethral bacteria. The inside of the sterile container must not be touched, and the sample should reach the laboratory promptly.核对依据: Clean catch urine sample · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024)
答案: B · 低磷导致呼吸肌无力和心力衰竭
重新开始喂养时,胰岛素把磷酸盐推入细胞内,因此血清磷酸盐可急剧下降(再喂养综合征)。严重低磷血症使膈肌和心脏无力。应补充磷酸盐,并缓慢增加喂养量。核对依据: Refeeding Syndrome · StatPearls (NCBI Bookshelf)
答案: D · To reduce drainage into the nose and absorption into blood
Nasolacrimal occlusion keeps the drop in the eye longer and reduces systemic absorption through the nasal mucosa. This matters for drugs such as timolol, which can cause bradycardia or bronchospasm.
答案: C · Higher blood glucose, so more frequent glucose checks are needed
Glucocorticoids raise blood glucose by increasing liver glucose production and insulin resistance. Glucose is monitored more often, and diabetes treatment may need to be increased during the course.
答案: D · With all meals and snacks that contain fat
In CF, thick secretions block the pancreatic ducts, causing fat malabsorption and fatty stools. Enzyme capsules are taken with every meal and fat-containing snack, with the dose adjusted to fat intake. Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) are also supplemented.
答案: D · Call for expert help and give oxygen to both the face and the stoma
In the first days after a tracheostomy, the tract is immature and the tube can easily be misplaced into the tissues. Emergency guidance is to call for an airway expert, apply oxygen to face and stoma and assess breathing. Reinsertion is done only by trained staff.
答案: B · 主要影响老年 2 型糖尿病患者,数天内发展
HHS 在数天内发展,常由感染诱发,表现为极度高血糖、极高渗透压和严重脱水,常伴意识混乱。体内的胰岛素足以防止明显的酮症。死亡率高于 DKA,血栓形成的风险也很高。
答案: C · Hypoactive delirium
Hypoactive delirium presents with drowsiness, withdrawal and slowness rather than agitation, so it is often missed. It has a worse prognosis than the hyperactive form. A family report of a sudden change is important, and a screening tool such as the 4AT or the CAM (Confusion Assessment Method) can be used.
答案: B · Post-dural puncture headache
CSF leaking through the dural puncture lowers pressure and causes a positional headache. Fluids, simple analgesia and caffeine may help, and the anaesthetist is informed; an epidural blood patch is sometimes needed.
答案: D · 可能为脊髓压迫:上报,按医嘱用类固醇,紧急 MRI
癌症患者出现背痛伴神经症状,提示转移性脊髓压迫。早期诊断(紧急全脊柱 MRI)和治疗(地塞米松、放疗或手术)可保留活动能力和控便功能。就诊过晚往往导致永久性瘫痪。
答案: C · 粉红至棕色分泌物(浆液性恶露)
浆液性恶露预期出现在约第 4 天至第 10 天。大血块或重新出现大量鲜红色出血提示组织残留或子宫复旧不全;恶臭提示感染。
答案: A · 按规程减量或停用缩宫素,并告知医疗人员
10 分钟内超过 5 次宫缩即为宫缩过频。即使监护图正常,也应按规程减量或停用缩宫素,因为胎儿可能很快出现窘迫。
答案: C · 上一剂该疫苗后发生过敏性休克
对上一剂疫苗或疫苗成分的严重过敏反应是禁忌证。局部发红和轻度发热是常见的预期反应。
答案: B · He has not yet developed conservation, which is typical of the preoperational stage
Preoperational children focus on one feature, such as height, and cannot yet understand that the amount stays the same when the shape changes. Conservation develops in the concrete operational stage, from about 7 years.
答案: B · 肾功能和甲状腺功能
锂盐可引起甲状腺功能减退并降低肾功能(包括肾性尿崩症),因此需定期检查肾功能、甲状腺功能、血钙和体重。
答案: C · Cannabis use increases the risk of psychotic symptoms returning
Cannabis, especially high-potency forms, is linked to a higher risk of psychosis and to relapse in people who have had a psychotic episode. A non-judgemental discussion and support to cut down are part of relapse prevention.
答案: T = 98.1 °F
温度:°C = (°F − 32) × 5/9,°F = °C × 9/5 + 32。从 °F 换算时先减 32 再乘,从 °C 换算时先乘再加 32。快速核对:37 °C 为 98.6 °F,每 1 °C 相当于 1.8 °F。
答案: N = 1
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: V = 0.5 mL
Solution strengths: a percentage strength is grams per 100 mL, so 1% = 1 g/100 mL = 10 mg/mL. A ratio strength 1:1000 means 1 g in 1000 mL = 1 mg/mL; 1:10 000 is 0.1 mg/mL. For a dilution the amount of drug stays the same: C₁·V₁ = C₂·V₂.
答案: V = 4.5 mL
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: R = 10 gtt/min
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
答案: t = 6 h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: U = 0.41 mL/kg/h
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: V = 260 mL
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: M = 3
格拉斯哥昏迷量表:把三个方面的最佳反应相加。睁眼 E:4 自发,3 对声音或言语,2 对压迫,1 无。言语 V:5 定向正常,4 意识模糊,3 用词不恰当,2 发出无法理解的声音,1 无。运动 M:6 遵嘱动作,5 定位,4 正常屈曲(回缩),3 异常屈曲,2 伸展,1 无。总分为 3 至 15。头部损伤后,13–15 通常称为轻度,9–12 为中度,3–8 为重度。
答案: 低
Apgar 评分:五项体征,每项评 0、1 或 2 分,在出生后 1 分钟和 5 分钟检查。外观(肤色):青紫或苍白 0 分,躯干粉红、四肢青紫 1 分,全身粉红 2 分。脉搏:无 0 分,低于 100 次/分 1 分,100 次/分或以上 2 分。反射(反射应激性):无 0 分,做鬼脸 1 分,哭叫、咳嗽或打喷嚏 2 分。肌张力(活动):松软 0 分,略有屈曲 1 分,活动活跃 2 分。呼吸:无 0 分,缓慢或不规则、哭声微弱 1 分,良好、哭声响亮 2 分。总分 7–10 为令人放心,4–6 为中度异常,0–3 为低。
5 分钟时低于 7 分,通常每 5 分钟重复评分一次,直至 20 分钟。
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