感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
What is the main purpose of a wound drain after surgery?
发现已经到达患者的给药差错时,正确做法是什么?
患者佩戴腕部约束带期间,最重要的评估是什么?
A handwritten order is hard to read, and the nurse is not sure of the drug name. What should the nurse do?
Which finding is an early sign of compartment syndrome in a patient with a lower leg fracture?
A patient is going home on a new oral anticoagulant. There is only a short time for teaching. Which topic is most important?
Which examination findings suggest a large pleural effusion on one side?
An older patient with delirium is trying to leave the ward at night, saying he must go home. What is the best initial approach?
一名患者接受皮下注射依诺肝素(一种低分子量肝素)。关于监测,哪项说法是正确的?
Which cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) pattern most strongly suggests bacterial meningitis?
How is adenosine given for supraventricular tachycardia?
正在服用华法林的患者开始使用利福平。可能的影响是什么?
心肌梗死两天后,一名患者突发呼吸困难、出现湿啰音和新的响亮收缩期杂音。应怀疑哪种并发症?
一名 NSTEMI 后放置了冠状动脉支架的患者问为什么要服用两种抗血小板药。哪个回答最准确?
A patient has just started haemodialysis. What usually happens to their protein needs?
A patient with an insulin pump is admitted with nausea, a glucose of 19 mmol/L (342 mg/dL) and blood ketones of 3.1 mmol/L. What is the priority?
一名肝硬化患者因肝性脑病服用乳果糖。通常的目标是什么?
After a high-voltage electrical injury, a patient's urine is dark red-brown. What does this suggest and what is the usual aim?
After an amniotomy, why is the time of rupture of the membranes recorded?
Routine screening at the booking visit shows asymptomatic bacteriuria. Why is treatment important even though the woman has no symptoms?
Why is hearing screening done in the newborn period?
During an insulin infusion for diabetic ketoacidosis, why is potassium monitored closely?
A patient who has taken lithium for 3 years reports tiredness, weight gain, feeling cold and constipation. Which problem should be checked?
在一次会谈中,一名患者说他打算严重伤害一位指名的邻居。正确的一般原则是什么?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个剂量记录在 2:00 AM。哪个条目是 24 小时制中的同一时间?点击它。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 医嘱为 10 mcg/kg/min,患者体重 46 kg。请把剂量速率D用 mg/h 表示。取到两位小数。
一个药瓶中含有 500 mg 的粉末。标签上写着:加入 1.8 mL 注射用水,得到总容量 2 mL。医嘱为 150 mg。你应给予复溶后溶液的多少容量 V?
处方为 3650 单位的药物,药液规格为 5000 单位/mL。请用 1 mL 注射器抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
滴注以 50 gtt/min 的速度通过滴系数为 60 gtt/mL 的输液器。患者在 4 小时内接受多少毫升 V?
将 100 mg 药物稀释于 100 mL 中,通过滴系数为 20 gtt/mL 的输液器重力滴注。医嘱为每小时 60 mg。求滴速 R,以每分钟滴数表示。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 8 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求总入量 I,以 mL 计。 冰屑按其体积的一半计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体于 06:30 开始用输液泵以 150 mL/h 输注。到 10:00 时袋中还剩多少 mL V?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Morse 跌倒评分评估一位练习患者:过去 3 个月内的跌倒史: 否; 次要诊断: 否; 行走辅助: 拐杖、手杖或助行器; 静脉输液或封管: 是; 步态: 受损; 精神状态: 了解自身局限。求 Morse 总分MFS。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 20 次/分,SpO₂ 96%吸室内空气,血压 150/90 mmHg,脉搏 70 次/分,清醒,体温 39.0 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
答案: B · To remove fluid or blood that could collect and delay healing
Drains let blood, serous fluid or pus escape, preventing collections such as seromas and haematomas. The nurse records the amount and type of drainage.
答案: B · 评估患者情况,告知开具医嘱者,并通过不良事件系统上报
评估并监测患者,告知负责的临床医生,上报事件,并对患者坦诚。绝不能为掩盖差错而修改记录。
答案: D · 约束带远端的血液循环、感觉和皮肤
应经常检查被约束患者的血液循环、感觉、皮肤状况、舒适度、液体摄入和如厕情况,并根据规定定期松开约束带让患者活动。
答案: B · Contact the prescriber to clarify before giving anything
Illegible or unclear orders are clarified directly with the prescriber. The nurse never guesses, and a held dose is reported so treatment is not missed.
答案: A · Pain out of proportion to the injury that worsens when the toes are stretched
The earliest sign is severe pain that is not relieved by usual analgesia and worsens on passive stretch. Loss of pulse is a late sign, so the nurse reports pain early.
答案: C · Signs of bleeding and when to seek help
The main risk of anticoagulants is bleeding, so the patient must know the signs, such as black stools or blood in the urine, and when to seek help. Other topics can follow later.
答案: A · Dull percussion and reduced breath sounds over the lung base
Fluid in the pleural space muffles breath sounds and makes percussion stony dull. A large effusion may push the trachea away from the affected side.
答案: B · Calmly reassure and redirect him while the team assesses his capacity and safety
De-escalation, reorientation and supervision come first. If he lacks capacity, the team must act in his best interests using the least restrictive measures, following local law and policy.
答案: C · 不常规监测 aPTT;而是检查血小板和肾功能
依诺肝素的效果可预测,因此不用 aPTT 来监测。血小板计数有助于发现肝素诱导的血小板减少症,肾功能也很重要,因为该药经肾脏清除。在妊娠、肥胖或肾病时可使用抗 Xa 水平。
答案: B · Cloudy fluid, low glucose, high protein, many neutrophils
Bacterial meningitis typically gives cloudy CSF with many neutrophils, high protein and low glucose, because bacteria and white cells use glucose. Viral meningitis usually shows lymphocytes with a normal glucose; option C is normal CSF.
答案: D · As a rapid IV push followed by a fast saline flush
Adenosine must reach the heart quickly, so it is pushed rapidly into a large vein and flushed. Patients are warned about brief flushing, chest tightness and a short pause in the heartbeat.
答案: C · INR 下降,因为华法林代谢加快
利福平诱导 CYP 酶,加快华法林代谢、减弱其作用,因此 INR 下降,血栓风险上升。
答案: A · 乳头肌断裂伴急性二尖瓣反流
心肌梗死后乳头肌(或室间隔)破裂会产生新的杂音,并引起突发心力衰竭或休克。这是外科急症。心包炎引起的是胸膜性胸痛和摩擦音,而不是伴新杂音的急性肺水肿。
答案: A · 阻断了两条通路,保护支架,但出血风险增加
双联抗血小板治疗(阿司匹林加氯吡格雷、替格瑞洛或普拉格雷等 P2Y₁₂ 抑制剂)可减少复发事件和支架血栓,通常持续最长 12 个月。它会增加出血风险,没有心脏科建议不得提前停药,尤其是在支架术后。
答案: D · They increase, because dialysis removes amino acids
Before dialysis, a moderate protein intake may be advised. Dialysis removes amino acids and protein, so needs rise, and malnutrition is a common risk. A renal dietitian sets individual targets.
答案: B · Suspect failed insulin delivery and give insulin by another route
Rising ketones in a pump user suggest that insulin delivery has failed, for example from a kinked cannula or an empty reservoir. Insulin must be given by pen or IV, and DKA treatment started if criteria are met. The site and pump are checked.
答案: A · 每天排两到三次软便
乳果糖使结肠酸化并捕获氨,还能加快肠道转运。剂量应滴定至每天 2–3 次软便。过度腹泻可引起脱水和电解质紊乱,使脑病加重。
答案: C · Myoglobin from muscle damage; a higher urine output target
Electrical injury can cause extensive muscle breakdown, releasing myoglobin that can damage the kidneys. A higher urine output target is set, with fluids titrated and creatine kinase and kidney function monitored.
答案: C · Infection risk rises the longer the membranes are ruptured
Once the membranes are ruptured, organisms can ascend into the uterus, and the risk of intra-amniotic infection rises with time. The nurse records the time with the colour, odour and amount of fluid (COAT) and monitors temperature and fetal heart rate.
答案: C · It can progress to pyelonephritis and trigger preterm labour
Urinary stasis in pregnancy lets bacteria ascend, so untreated bacteriuria often progresses to pyelonephritis, which is linked with preterm labour. A pregnancy-safe antibiotic and a repeat culture are standard.
答案: A · Early detection allows support that protects language development
Permanent hearing loss is often not obvious in babies. Screening allows diagnosis and support, such as hearing aids, within the first months, which greatly improves speech and language outcomes.
答案: A · Insulin moves potassium into the cells, so blood potassium can fall sharply
Total body potassium is low in DKA, though blood levels may look normal at first. Insulin and correction of acidosis drive potassium into cells, risking hypokalaemia and arrhythmias, so potassium is added to fluids and checked often.
答案: C · Hypothyroidism
Lithium can reduce thyroid hormone production, causing hypothyroidism. Thyroid function is checked regularly, and treatment with levothyroxine allows lithium to be continued if needed.
答案: C · 对可确认身份者的风险必须告知团队,并可能需要依照法律和政策披露,以保护该人
对可确认身份者的严重威胁高于保密原则。护士应告知团队,记录该威胁,并遵循法律和政策规定的程序来保护该人。
答案: 02:00
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: D = 27.6 mg/h
量纲分析:先写出已知量,再乘以写成分数形式的换算系数(例如 60 min/1 h 或 1 mg/1000 mcg),使每个不需要的单位在分子和分母各出现一次并相互约去。只剩下所求单位时再计算。使用题目给出的等量关系,只对最终答案取整。
答案: V = 0.6 mL
Dose calculation: the amount to give equals what is prescribed divided by what you have, times the quantity it comes in: amount = (desired dose/stock strength) × stock volume. Always keep the units the same (convert g to mg, mg to mcg first) and check that the answer is sensible.
答案: V = 0.73 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 1 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.01 mL。
答案: V = 200 mL
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
答案: R = 20 gtt/min
Dose-based infusions: concentration = amount of drug in the bag/bag volume. Pump rate (mL/h) = dose per hour/concentration, and dose per hour = mL/h × concentration. Convert per-minute doses to per-hour (× 60) and keep the mass units the same (1 g = 1000 mg, 1 mg = 1000 mcg).
答案: I = 1500 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: V = 475 mL
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: MFS = 55
Morse 跌倒评分:六个条目。跌倒史:否 0 分,是 25 分。次要诊断:否 0 分,是 15 分。行走辅助:无、卧床休息或护士协助 0 分;拐杖、手杖或助行器 15 分;扶着家具 30 分。静脉输液或封管:否 0 分,是 20 分。步态:正常、卧床休息或轮椅 0 分;虚弱 10 分;受损 20 分。精神状态:了解自身局限 0 分;高估或忘记自身局限 15 分。总分为 0 至 125。各医院的风险分界值不同;常用的一套是 0–24 低风险,25–44 中度风险,45 及以上为高风险。
答案: 低
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
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