感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
What is the main aim of "protected mealtimes" on hospital wards?
Which nursing diagnosis is written in the problem–aetiology–signs (PES) format?
为什么口服液体药物要用口服或肠内注射器,而不是普通静脉注射器抽取?
护士的哪项行为表明她遵守了手卫生五个时刻?
During an IV vancomycin infusion, a patient develops flushing and itching of the face and neck. What should the nurse do first?
一名上消化道出血的患者心率 128 次/分,血压 84/50 mmHg。以下都有医嘱。护士首先开始哪一项?
甲状腺手术后,一名患者口周麻刺感并有肌肉痉挛。应怀疑哪种电解质问题?
Soon after starting chemotherapy for a high-grade lymphoma, a patient has rising potassium, phosphate and uric acid with falling urine output. What is the most likely cause?
How does normal pregnancy usually affect serum creatinine?
A patient with a large, fast-growing lymphoma will start chemotherapy tomorrow. Which plan best prevents tumor lysis syndrome?
异丙托溴铵是用于 COPD 的支气管扩张剂。它如何起作用?
Why are tetracyclines usually avoided in pregnancy and in young children (under 8 years in US guidance, under 12 years in the UK)?
COPD 的肺康复是什么?
After a faulty gas heater was found at home, a patient has headache, nausea and confusion. SpO₂ is 99% on air. What is the priority treatment?
一名卒中患者能听懂别人说的话,但很难找到词语,说话简短而吃力。这是哪种失语?
A nurse teaches the family of a patient on insulin how to manage a severe hypo. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
哪项饮食建议可降低新回肠造口堵塞的风险?
A patient with diabetes on continuous enteral feeding and an insulin regimen has the feed stopped for a procedure. What is the main concern?
胎膜破裂后,羊水呈绿色。这提示什么?
A woman at 37 weeks has severe itching of the palms and soles, worse at night, without a rash. Which condition should be considered?
A 3-day-old has a red, swollen eyelid with a heavy discharge of pus. What should the nurse do?
A teenager with severe anorexia nervosa starts nutritional rehabilitation. Which blood result is most important to watch in the first days?
末次饮酒后,震颤谵妄最可能在何时开始?
The nurse receives handover for four patients. Which patient should she see first?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一位患者身高 6 ft 9 in。按 1 ft = 12 in 和 1 in = 2.54 cm,求以厘米表示的身高h,取到最接近的整厘米。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个班次中,患者摄入了2 tbsp / 液体营养补充剂, 3 fl oz / 果汁, ¾ 杯 / 茶, 1 tsp / 止咳糖浆。按给出的等量关系,求以 mL 表示的口服总摄入量V。
一名体重 47 kg 的患者体表面积为 1.25 m²。医嘱为 50 mg/m²。求剂量 D,以 mg 表示。
一袋输液在 500 mL 中含 25000 单位药物。医嘱为每小时 1200 单位。泵速 R 应设为多少 mL/h?
滴注以 25 gtt/min 的速度通过滴系数为 15 gtt/mL 的输液器。患者在 12 小时内接受多少毫升 V?
一组输液以 32 滴/分的速度经 20 滴/mL 的输液器滴注。袋中还剩 900 mL。还需多少小时 t 才会滴完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求液体平衡 B = 入量 − 出量,以 mL 计(答案为负表示净丢失)。 冰屑按其体积的一半计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体于 08:30 开始用输液泵以 60 mL/h 输注。到 13:00 时袋中还剩多少 mL V?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 12 次/分,SpO₂ 96%正在补充吸氧,血压 118/70 mmHg,脉搏 140 次/分,清醒,体温 38.1 °C。NEWS2 总分是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Morse 跌倒评分评估一位练习患者:过去 3 个月内的跌倒史: 否; 次要诊断: 否; 行走辅助: 无、卧床休息或由护士协助; 静脉输液或封管: 否; 步态: 受损; 精神状态: 了解自身局限。使用分界值 0–24 低,25–44 中度,45 或以上高,点击跌倒风险等级。
答案: A · To let patients eat without interruptions, with help where needed
Ward rounds and tests can interrupt meals, and patients then eat less. Protected mealtimes pause non-urgent activity so staff can focus on helping patients eat.
答案: B · Impaired skin integrity related to immobility, as shown by a sacral wound
A PES statement gives the nursing problem, the related cause and the defining signs. Pneumonia is a medical diagnosis, turning is an intervention, and a cause cannot repeat the problem.
答案: A · 口服注射器无法接入静脉管路,可防止给药途径错误
口服和肠内注射器的接头与静脉接口不匹配,因此口服液体不会被误注入静脉。口服液体的给药途径错误曾导致死亡。
答案: D · 她在接触床栏之后清洁双手
接触床栏、桌子等患者周围环境会污染双手,所以之后需要手卫生。在患者之间应更换手套,无论手看起来是否脏都需要手卫生。
答案: D · Stop or slow the infusion and inform the provider
Flushing of the upper body during vancomycin is usually an infusion reaction related to the rate. The nurse stops or slows the infusion, assesses for anaphylaxis and informs the provider.
答案: D · 通过大口径套管静脉输液或输血
心动过速和低血压显示低血容量性休克,因此首先恢复循环血容量,按医嘱使用液体或血制品并密切监测。抑酸和内镜检查在复苏进行之后,口服铁剂属于后期恢复。
答案: D · 低钙血症
甲状旁腺损伤会使血钙降低,引起口周麻刺感、手足搐搦以及 Chvostek 征或 Trousseau 征阳性。
答案: C · Tumour lysis syndrome
Rapid tumour cell death releases potassium, phosphate and nucleic acids (forming uric acid), which can cause AKI and arrhythmias. Prevention includes IV hydration and drugs to lower uric acid.
答案: D · It falls, because GFR rises
In pregnancy, kidney blood flow and GFR rise by about 50%, so creatinine falls below non-pregnant values. A creatinine that looks "normal" for a non-pregnant adult may indicate reduced kidney function in pregnancy.
答案: A · IV hydration, a uric acid-lowering drug and frequent electrolytes
Prevention includes aggressive IV hydration, drugs such as allopurinol or rasburicase to lower uric acid, and frequent monitoring of potassium, phosphate, calcium, uric acid and creatinine. Tumor lysis usually begins within 1–3 days of starting treatment.
答案: D · 阻断气道平滑肌中的毒蕈碱受体
异丙托溴铵是一种吸入性抗胆碱药。它阻断迷走神经介导的支气管收缩和黏液分泌,对 COPD 尤其有用。
答案: D · They bind to growing teeth and bone and stain the teeth permanently
Tetracyclines chelate calcium and are deposited in growing teeth and bones. This can cause permanent yellow-brown staining of the teeth and may affect bone growth. Short courses of doxycycline are sometimes still used in younger children for specific serious infections.
答案: A · 在监督下进行的运动和教育,以减轻呼吸困难
肺康复结合个体化的运动训练、教育和呼吸技巧。它可提高运动能力,减轻呼吸困难,改善生活质量,并减少住院。推荐用于因呼吸困难而活动受限的 COPD 患者以及急性加重之后。
答案: C · High-concentration oxygen via a non-rebreather mask
Carbon monoxide binds haemoglobin far more strongly than oxygen, causing tissue hypoxia, while pulse oximetry can look normal. High-concentration oxygen speeds CO removal. Carboxyhaemoglobin is measured on a blood gas, and others in the home may also be at risk.
答案: A · 表达性(Broca)失语
表达性失语由额叶 Broca 区受损引起,表现为不流利、费力的言语,理解力相对保留。感受性失语表现为流利但无意义的言语和理解力差。构音障碍是语言功能完整的运动性言语问题。
答案: D · "If she is unconscious, I will pour juice into her mouth."
An unconscious person cannot swallow safely, so fluids in the mouth can be aspirated. The family should put the person in the recovery position, give glucagon if trained and call for help. Once awake and able to swallow, the person eats a longer-acting carbohydrate.
答案: A · 充分咀嚼,并缓慢引入含纤维的食物
坚果、甜玉米、干果和水果皮等含纤维的食物可形成团块,堵塞狭窄的造口。彻底咀嚼、缓慢引入这些食物和饮用足够的水可降低风险。堵塞的症状包括绞痛、造口肿胀和无排出物。
答案: C · Hypoglycaemia if insulin continues without the feed
When feed stops but insulin continues, blood glucose can fall sharply. The insulin plan is reviewed with the team, glucose is checked frequently, and a glucose infusion may be needed.
答案: D · 胎儿已在宫内排出胎粪
绿色羊水表示胎儿在宫内排出了胎粪。这在过期妊娠后更常见,也可发生于胎儿窘迫,因此需密切观察胎心率,团队也要为分娩做好准备。
答案: C · Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy
Itching of the hands and feet without a rash suggests intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy. Raised bile acids are linked with stillbirth, so liver function and bile acids are checked and timing of birth may be planned.
答案: B · Arrange prompt medical review, as infection from the birth canal is possible
Neonatal conjunctivitis with heavy pus and swelling may be caused by gonococcus or chlamydia acquired during birth. Gonococcal infection can damage the cornea rapidly, so swabs and prompt treatment are needed, and the parents are tested and treated too.
答案: B · Phosphate
When feeding restarts after starvation, insulin drives phosphate, potassium and magnesium into cells. Low phosphate can cause heart failure, arrhythmias and confusion, so electrolytes are checked often and feeds are increased gradually.
答案: B · 约 2 至 4 天(48 至 96 小时)
典型的时间:震颤和焦虑从约 6–24 小时开始,戒断性惊厥从约 12–48 小时开始,震颤谵妄从约 48–96 小时开始。时间因人而异。
答案: A · A newly admitted man with depression who says he has given away his dog and written letters to his children
Giving away pets or possessions and writing goodbye letters are warning signs of a suicide plan. This patient needs immediate assessment; the others have needs that can safely wait a little.
答案: h = 206 cm
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: V = 305 mL
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: D = 62.5 mg
Body-surface-area dosing: many cytotoxic and some paediatric doses are prescribed per square metre of body surface area: dose (mg) = dose per m² × BSA (m²). The Mosteller formula estimates BSA = √(height (cm) × weight (kg)/3600).
答案: R = 24 mL/h
剂量计算:给药量等于医嘱剂量除以现有药物的规格,再乘以该规格对应的量:给药量 = (医嘱剂量/储备规格) × 储备体积。始终统一单位(先把 g 换成 mg,mg 换成 mcg),并检查答案是否合理。
答案: V = 1200 mL
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
答案: t = 9.4 h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: B = 545 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
为正:摄入的液体多于排出的液体。
答案: V = 730 mL
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: NEWS2 = 6
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
答案: 低风险
Morse 跌倒评分:六个条目。跌倒史:否 0 分,是 25 分。次要诊断:否 0 分,是 15 分。行走辅助:无、卧床休息或护士协助 0 分;拐杖、手杖或助行器 15 分;扶着家具 30 分。静脉输液或封管:否 0 分,是 20 分。步态:正常、卧床休息或轮椅 0 分;虚弱 10 分;受损 20 分。精神状态:了解自身局限 0 分;高估或忘记自身局限 15 分。总分为 0 至 125。各医院的风险分界值不同;常用的一套是 0–24 低风险,25–44 中度风险,45 及以上为高风险。
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