感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
At what angle is a subcutaneous injection usually given?
一名患者出现急性腹泻,疑似 Clostridioides difficile(艰难梭菌)感染。哪组措施是正确的?
Why is “QD” (once daily) on The Joint Commission’s “Do Not Use” list?
A nurse has worked three long shifts in a row and feels exhausted. The manager asks the nurse to stay for another shift. What is the most appropriate response?
A patient receives hemodialysis this morning. Which type of medication is often held before dialysis, as prescribed?
An adult choking on food is coughing forcefully and can speak a little. What should the nurse do?
一名 1 型糖尿病患者血糖 25 mmol/L,呼吸深快,尿中有酮体。最可能的诊断是什么?
During a general anaesthetic, a patient develops a rapidly rising temperature, muscle rigidity and rising carbon dioxide levels. What should be suspected?
A patient has had severe watery diarrhea for 4 days. Which laboratory pattern would the nurse expect?
A patient with jaundice and nausea has a positive IgM antibody to hepatitis A virus (IgM anti-HAV). What does this show?
Why is IV promethazine given with great caution?
A toddler swallowed many of his mother's iron tablets. He has vomiting and bloody diarrhoea. Which drug may be used to bind iron?
How do clopidogrel and ticagrelor work?
A patient taking warfarin for AF falls and hits their head. An hour later they are drowsy and have vomited. What is the priority?
一名高血压难以控制、血钾持续偏低的患者,未使用利尿剂。应考虑哪种疾病?
A student has fever, a severe headache, a spreading non-blanching rash and a BP of 85/50 mmHg. A lumbar puncture is planned. What is the priority?
一名肝硬化患者因肝性脑病服用乳果糖。通常的目标是什么?
重症急性胰腺炎第 2 天,一名患者呼吸困难,SpO₂ 88%,胸部 X 线显示双肺浸润影。最可能的并发症是什么?
Which finding in a term newborn's first hours is normal?
A woman in active labour has been at 6 cm for 4 hours despite regular contractions. Which factor among the "5 Ps" should the nurse consider first?
A child weighs 20 kg. Which minimum urine output suggests adequate kidney perfusion?
A 6-month-old has just learned to roll over. Which safety advice is most urgent now?
A 78-year-old woman who started citalopram two weeks ago is newly confused and drowsy. Which laboratory result would best explain this?
一名自愿入院、没有即时伤害风险的患者想不顾医嘱离开病房。正确的一般处理方式是什么?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一个剂量记录在 7:05 AM。哪个条目是 24 小时制中的同一时间?点击它。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次输注从 23:55 开始,到次日早晨 04:05 结束(24 小时制)。它运行了多少小时t?答案以小数表示小时数,取到两位小数。
一名体重 101 kg 的患者体表面积为 1.97 m²。医嘱为 75 mg/m²。求剂量 D,以 mg 表示。
你需要用 20%(w/v)储备液配制 100 mL 2%(w/v)溶液。 必须向储备液中加入多少水 W?
医嘱要求在 10 小时内输入 1500 mL。2 小时后你发现袋中还剩 1490 mL,而输液仍须按时完成。 必须把泵重新设定为多少 mL/h 的速率 R?
一组输液以 28 滴/分的速度经 15 滴/mL 的输液器滴注。袋中还剩 750 mL。还需多少小时 t 才会滴完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求液体平衡 B = 入量 − 出量,以 mL 计(答案为负表示净丢失)。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 1000 mL 的液体于 09:45 开始用输液泵以 100 mL/h 输注。到 13:45 时袋中还剩多少 mL V?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 14 次/分,SpO₂ 96%正在补充吸氧,血压 150/90 mmHg,脉搏 64 次/分,清醒,体温 36.7 °C。NEWS2 总分是多少?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 对这些观察结果使用 NEWS2 图表(SpO₂ 量表 1):呼吸频率 12 次/分,SpO₂ 98%吸室内空气,血压 150/90 mmHg,脉搏 64 次/分,新出现意识模糊,体温 36.1 °C。患者属于哪个临床风险组?点击它。
答案: A · 45 to 90 degrees, depending on the amount of fat
The angle depends on needle length and body fat. A short needle at 90 degrees suits most adults; in thin patients a pinch of skin or a 45-degree angle avoids reaching muscle.
答案: C · 隔离患者,使用手套和围裙,用肥皂和水洗手
疑似艰难梭菌感染需要及时隔离并采取接触防护。芽孢不能被酒精杀灭,因此要用肥皂和水洗手,并用含氯等杀芽孢剂清洁环境。
答案: C · It can be misread as QID or QOD, so the drug is given too often or too rarely
“QD” and “QOD” can be confused with each other and with “QID”, leading to serious dosing errors. The word “daily” or “every other day” is written in full instead.
答案: B · Explain that fatigue would make care unsafe and decline the extra shift
Long hours and fatigue increase errors and injuries. Nurses have a professional responsibility to judge whether they are fit to work safely and to say so clearly.
答案: B · Antihypertensive drugs
Removing fluid during dialysis can cause hypotension, so blood pressure drugs are often held before treatment as prescribed. Some drugs are also removed by dialysis and given afterwards.
答案: D · Encourage the patient to keep coughing and stay with them
A partial obstruction with a forceful cough is best cleared by the patient’s own coughing. The nurse stays and is ready to act if the cough becomes weak or the patient cannot speak or breathe.
答案: A · 糖尿病酮症酸中毒
高血糖、酮体和酸中毒伴 Kussmaul 呼吸提示 DKA。治疗包括补液、胰岛素和密切监测血钾。
答案: B · Malignant hyperthermia
Malignant hyperthermia is a hypermetabolic reaction triggered by volatile anaesthetics or suxamethonium (succinylcholine) in susceptible people. It is treated urgently with dantrolene, cooling and stopping the trigger.
答案: B · Low potassium and low bicarbonate
Lower gut fluid contains potassium and bicarbonate, so severe diarrhea causes hypokalemia and a normal anion gap (hyperchloremic) metabolic acidosis, plus dehydration. Vomiting, in contrast, causes metabolic alkalosis.核对依据: Potassium Blood Test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024); Metabolic acidosis · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: C · A current or recent hepatitis A infection
IgM antibodies appear early, so IgM anti-HAV indicates acute hepatitis A. IgG anti-HAV alone shows past infection or vaccination and lifelong immunity. Hepatitis A does not become chronic and spreads by the fecal-oral route, so hand hygiene is essential.核对依据: Hepatitis A · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)
答案: B · It can cause severe tissue injury if it leaks or enters an artery
Promethazine is a vesicant. Deep intramuscular injection is the preferred parenteral route, and if given IV it is diluted, given slowly into a well-running large vein, and stopped at once if the patient reports burning or pain.
答案: B · Deferoxamine (desferrioxamine)
Iron poisoning can cause GI bleeding, shock, metabolic acidosis and liver failure. Deferoxamine chelates iron and is used in serious poisoning; activated charcoal does not bind iron.
答案: D · They block the platelet ADP (P2Y12) receptor
Clopidogrel, prasugrel and ticagrelor block the P2Y12 ADP receptor on platelets, reducing aggregation. With aspirin, they form dual antiplatelet therapy after acute coronary syndromes and stents. Warfarin inhibits vitamin K-dependent factors; dabigatran inhibits thrombin.
答案: B · Urgent escalation for CT of the head and anticoagulant reversal
Head injury in an anticoagulated patient with drowsiness or vomiting suggests intracranial haemorrhage. Urgent CT, neurological observations, an INR and rapid reversal (for warfarin, prothrombin complex concentrate and IV vitamin K) are needed.
答案: D · 原发性醛固酮增多症(Conn 综合征)
醛固酮过多导致钠水潴留(高血压)和钾丢失(低钾血症)。原发性醛固酮增多症是高血压常见的继发原因,通过醛固酮/肾素比值筛查。Addison 病的表现则相反。
答案: C · Give IV antibiotics at once and start sepsis treatment
Meningococcal septicaemia can kill within hours. Antibiotics must not be delayed for a lumbar puncture or scan. Fluids and other sepsis care are started, and a lumbar puncture is often unsafe in a shocked patient.
答案: C · 每天排两到三次软便
乳果糖使结肠酸化并捕获氨,还能加快肠道转运。剂量应滴定至每天 2–3 次软便。过度腹泻可引起脱水和电解质紊乱,使脑病加重。
答案: D · 急性呼吸窘迫综合征(ARDS)
重症胰腺炎引发全身炎症反应,可导致 ARDS、AKI 和休克。低氧血症伴双肺浸润影是典型表现。需要上报重症监护以获得呼吸支持。
答案: B · Short breathing pauses with no colour change
Newborns breathe irregularly, with short pauses of a few seconds and no change in colour or heart rate. Apnoea of 20 seconds or more, or any pause with cyanosis or bradycardia, is abnormal.
答案: D · The passenger: fetal size, position or presentation
When contractions are adequate but labour stalls, causes include a malpositioned or large fetus (passenger) or a narrow pelvis (passageway). Position changes, hydration and support of the psyche can also help progress.
答案: D · About 20 mL per hour
A urine output of at least about 1 mL/kg/hour is generally used as a sign of adequate perfusion in children; for 20 kg this is about 20 mL/hour. Lower output can signal dehydration, shock or kidney problems.
答案: B · Never leave her alone on a changing table, bed or sofa
Rolling makes falls from raised surfaces the main immediate risk, so a hand should always stay on the baby on any raised surface. Cupboard locks and kitchen safety become important as she starts to crawl and pull to stand.
答案: A · A low serum sodium
SSRIs can cause hyponatraemia through SIADH, especially in older adults. Confusion, falls and drowsiness after starting an SSRI should prompt a sodium check.
答案: A · 解释风险,告知团队,记录谈话内容,并依照法律和政策尊重其离开的权利
自愿入院的患者通常可以离开,不过在评估其风险期间可能被要求等待。拘留某人需要法律授权。护士应告知团队、评估风险并记录。
答案: 07:05
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: t = 4.17 h
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: D = 147.8 mg
Body-surface-area dosing: many cytotoxic and some paediatric doses are prescribed per square metre of body surface area: dose (mg) = dose per m² × BSA (m²). The Mosteller formula estimates BSA = √(height (cm) × weight (kg)/3600).
答案: W = 90 mL
Solution strengths: a percentage strength is grams per 100 mL, so 1% = 1 g/100 mL = 10 mg/mL. A ratio strength 1:1000 means 1 g in 1000 mL = 1 mg/mL; 1:10 000 is 0.1 mg/mL. For a dilution the amount of drug stays the same: C₁·V₁ = C₂·V₂.
答案: R = 186.3 mL/h
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
许多医院允许在不重开医嘱的情况下进行不超过 25% 的此类调整;请查阅本院规定。
答案: t = 6.7 h
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
答案: B = 625 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
为正:摄入的液体多于排出的液体。
答案: V = 600 mL
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
答案: NEWS2 = 2
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
答案: 中低
NEWS2(国家早期预警评分 2,英国皇家内科医师学会 2017):按图表为七个参数分别评分(呼吸频率、量表 1 的 SpO₂、吸空气还是吸氧、收缩压、脉搏、按 ACVPU 量表评定的意识状态和体温),然后把分数相加。临床风险:0–4 为低;任何单项参数得 3 分为中低;5–6 为中;7 或以上为高。总分 5 或以上需要紧急响应。
即使总分低,单项得 3 分也需要紧急会诊。
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