感染控制与患者安全
方法
- 对每位患者都从标准预防开始:手卫生、针对预期暴露的个人防护装备、安全使用锐器。
- 按传播途径追加预防措施:接触传播(隔离衣、手套)、飞沫传播(外科口罩)、空气传播(N95、负压病房)。
- 保持无菌物品的无菌状态:如有疑问就视为不无菌;更换,绝不擦拭。
- 预防环境中的伤害:防跌倒措施,约束仅作为最后手段,火灾时用 RACE 和 PASS。
- 核对给药的正确原则、两个身份识别信息,以及对高警示药物的额外保障;报告差错和险兆事件。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 34 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
Why are patients with a new ileostomy at risk of dehydration?
Under the Mental Capacity Act 2005 (England and Wales), a patient with capacity makes a decision staff think is unwise. What follows?
During a surgical hand scrub, how are the hands held?
A nurse teaches parents about firearm safety at home. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
When making patient assignments, what should the charge nurse consider first?
在 START 分诊中,一名成人没有呼吸。调整气道体位后,伤员仍不呼吸。正确的类别是什么?
A patient with pneumonia is breathless and coughing up thick sputum. Which nursing measure helps most with breathing?
A nurse teaches a patient with hypertension about their medicines. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?
万古霉素谷浓度高于目标范围。主要担忧是哪种不良反应?
A woman with preeclampsia is receiving IV magnesium sulfate. Her urine output has fallen and her creatinine is rising. Why is this a concern?
A patient is starting lamotrigine. Which adverse effect should the patient report at once?
有些受体即使没有激动剂也表现出活性。在这类受体上,反向激动剂与中性拮抗剂有何不同?
What is the purpose of a mucolytic such as carbocisteine in chronic productive cough?
The monitor of a patient with a permanent pacemaker shows pacing spikes, but none of them is followed by a QRS complex. What does this mean?
甲状腺切除术后,为什么常在床边备有拆线或拆夹器?
A patient on a variable rate IV insulin infusion is nil by mouth. Why is a glucose-containing IV fluid usually given alongside it?
Dysphagia that started with solids and now includes liquids, with weight loss, most suggests which cause?
拔除硬膜外导管数小时后,一名使用抗凝药的患者出现背痛和逐渐加重的腿部无力。应怀疑什么?
Why is mild anaemia common in the second trimester even in healthy women?
A woman 5 hours after birth had a large blood loss and now has a heart rate of 128/min, blood pressure of 88/50 mmHg and cold hands. Which action is most important?
A 3-day-old has a red, swollen eyelid with a heavy discharge of pus. What should the nurse do?
A healthy breastfed baby has lost 7% of her birth weight on day 3. What is the best interpretation?
A patient says, "I'm going to be a famous singer, and I'll buy this whole hospital." Which response best uses the technique of voicing doubt?
一名锂盐治疗稳定的患者告诉护士,她因背痛开始每天服用布洛芬。护士应怎么做?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名新生儿体重 6 lb 8 oz。按 1 lb = 16 oz 和 1 kg = 2.2 lb,求以千克表示的体重m。取到两位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一次输注从 20:55 开始,到次日早晨 01:10 结束(24 小时制)。它运行了多少分钟t?
一个药瓶中含有 500 mg 的粉末。标签上写着:加入 1.8 mL 注射用水,得到总容量 2 mL。医嘱为 100 mg。你应给予复溶后溶液的多少容量 V?
处方为 4650 单位的药物,药液规格为 5000 单位/mL。请用 1 mL 注射器抽取剂量:应给多少体积 V?
用滴系数为 15 滴/mL 的输液器在 3 小时内输入 250 mL。求滴速 R(滴/分)。 取整到最接近的整数。
医嘱要求在 8 小时内输入 1000 mL。3 小时后你发现袋中还剩 760 mL,而输液仍须按时完成。 原来的泵速必须提高百分之多少 Δ?
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 记录显示了一名患者在一个 12 小时班次中的出入量。静脉输液在整个班次中按所示速率输注。求液体平衡 B = 入量 − 出量,以 mL 计(答案为负表示净丢失)。 冰屑按其体积的一半计。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一袋 500 mL 的液体用输液泵以 120 mL/h 输注。到 11:00 时已输入 50 mL。还要多少小时 t 袋子才会输完? 保留一位小数。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 用 Braden 量表评估一位练习患者:感觉知觉: 完全受限; 潮湿程度: 持续潮湿; 活动: 偶尔步行; 活动能力: 非常受限; 营养: 非常差; 摩擦力和剪切力: 潜在问题。求 Braden 总分B。
练习题(虚构数值,不作为临床指导)。 一名成人体重 146 kg,身高 175 cm。计算 BMI 并点击 WHO 体重分类。
答案: A · The output is liquid and contains a lot of water and salt
The colon normally reabsorbs water and salt. An ileostomy bypasses it, so high output can quickly cause dehydration and low sodium; output is monitored and fluids encouraged.
答案: B · An unwise decision alone does not mean the person lacks capacity
One of the Act's principles is that a person is not treated as lacking capacity just because they make an unwise decision. Staff can explain risks, but the decision is the patient's.
答案: D · Above the elbows, so water runs from the fingertips toward the elbows
After a surgical scrub, the hands are the cleanest area, so they are held above the elbows to let water drain away from them toward the less clean elbows.
答案: C · “We keep the gun loaded in the nightstand, and the children know not to touch it.”
Firearms in homes with children should be stored unloaded and locked, with ammunition stored separately and locked. Telling children not to touch a gun does not reliably prevent injuries.
答案: C · Matching each patient’s needs to staff competence
Assignments are based mainly on patient acuity and needs and on each staff member’s skills and scope. Geography and continuity of care help, but they come after safety.
答案: B · 黑色(死亡或期待观察)
在 START 中,调整气道体位后仍不呼吸的伤员被标为黑色。为一个人进行心肺复苏会使救援人员远离许多可能存活的其他人。如果调整体位后恢复呼吸,则该伤员为红色。
答案: A · Sitting the patient upright and supporting them to clear secretions
An upright position improves lung expansion, and adequate fluids, deep breathing and coughing help clear sputum. Oxygen is given to target saturations if needed.
答案: A · "I'll stop my tablets once my readings are normal."
Hypertension usually needs long-term treatment; stopping because readings are normal often makes blood pressure rise again. Patients should discuss any changes with their prescriber.
答案: A · 肾损害(肾毒性)
万古霉素水平高与急性肾损伤以及较少见的听力损害有关。护士应在下一次给药前报告结果,并检查肌酐和尿量。
答案: D · Magnesium is excreted by the kidneys, so it can build up to toxic levels
Magnesium is cleared by the kidneys, so falling urine output and rising creatinine raise the risk of toxicity. The nurse checks deep tendon reflexes, respiratory rate and level of consciousness, reports the findings and keeps calcium gluconate available as the antidote.核对依据: Magnesium Toxicity (StatPearls) · StatPearls (NCBI Bookshelf) (2026)
答案: C · Any new skin rash
Lamotrigine can cause serious skin reactions such as Stevens–Johnson syndrome. The dose is increased slowly, especially with valproate, and any rash must be assessed promptly.
答案: A · 它使活性降到基础水平以下
中性拮抗剂只是阻断激动剂,基础活性不变。反向激动剂稳定受体的非活性状态,因此组成性活性降到基础水平以下。
答案: A · To make sputum thinner and easier to cough up
Mucolytics reduce sputum viscosity, which can make expectoration easier and may reduce exacerbations in some people with COPD. They are not bronchodilators or antibiotics. Cough suppressants are generally avoided in productive cough.
答案: A · Failure to capture
Failure to capture means the pacing stimulus does not depolarise the myocardium, so no QRS follows the spike. Causes include lead displacement, a raised threshold or battery problems. It can cause bradycardia or asystole, so the patient is assessed and the team informed urgently.
答案: D · 颈部血肿可压迫气道,可能需要松解
甲状腺手术后颈部血肿可迅速压迫气道。许多病房在床边备有拆夹器或拆线器及气道设备,以便在紧急情况下打开伤口。护士应观察有无肿胀、喘鸣和呼吸困难。
答案: B · To prevent hypoglycaemia while insulin is running
Without food, an insulin infusion can push glucose too low. A substrate fluid containing glucose is run with the insulin, and glucose is checked hourly so the rate can be adjusted.
答案: C · A narrowing such as an oesophageal tumour
Progressive dysphagia, solids first then liquids, with weight loss, is typical of a mechanical obstruction such as oesophageal cancer or a stricture. It needs an urgent referral for endoscopy.
答案: B · 硬膜外血肿,需要紧急评估和 MRI
使用硬膜外镇痛期间或拔管后,出现运动无力加重、麻木、背痛或膀胱功能障碍,尤其是使用抗凝药时,可能提示硬膜外血肿或脓肿。这是急症:需要紧急麻醉评估和 MRI,必要时手术减压,以防永久性瘫痪。
答案: C · Plasma volume rises more than red cell mass
Plasma volume increases more than red cell mass, so haemoglobin concentration falls (physiological or dilutional anaemia). Iron deficiency can add to this and should still be checked.
答案: D · Call for urgent help and start fluid resuscitation
Tachycardia, hypotension and cool peripheries indicate hypovolaemic shock. Help is called, IV access secured, fluids and blood given as prescribed, and the cause of bleeding treated.
答案: C · Arrange prompt medical review, as infection from the birth canal is possible
Neonatal conjunctivitis with heavy pus and swelling may be caused by gonococcus or chlamydia acquired during birth. Gonococcal infection can damage the cornea rapidly, so swabs and prompt treatment are needed, and the parents are tested and treated too.
答案: D · This is within the usual range; observe a feed and follow the weight
Newborns commonly lose up to about 7–10% of birth weight in the first days and usually regain it by about 2 weeks. At this level, observing a feed, checking latch and nappy output and rechecking weight are appropriate.
答案: C · "That sounds hard to believe."
Voicing doubt lets the patient know the nurse does not share the belief, without a confrontation. Arguing tends to make delusional beliefs firmer, while agreeing reinforces them.
答案: B · 通知开医嘱者,因为布洛芬可使血锂升高到中毒水平
非甾体抗炎药会减少锂的排泄,因此血锂水平可能升至中毒范围。开医嘱者应复核疼痛治疗和锂盐监测。
答案: m = 2.95 kg
家用计量和体重:护理考试使用取整的等量关系:1 茶匙(tsp)= 5 mL,1 汤匙(tbsp)= 15 mL = 3 tsp,1 液量盎司(fl oz)= 30 mL = 2 tbsp,1 杯 = 8 fl oz = 240 mL。体重方面,1 kg = 2.2 lb,1 lb = 16 oz;长度方面,1 英寸 = 2.54 cm。设置换算时,要让你不需要的单位相互约去。
答案: t = 255 min
24 小时制:下午 1 点起,小时数加 12(下午 3:45 = 15:45)。午夜到凌晨 12:59 为 00:00–00:59,中午 12:00–12:59 仍为 12:00–12:59。反过来换算时,13–23 点减 12 并标为下午;00 点变为凌晨 12 点。跨午夜计算时间要分两段:先算到 24:00(00:00),再从 00:00 算起。
答案: V = 0.4 mL
Dose calculation: the amount to give equals what is prescribed divided by what you have, times the quantity it comes in: amount = (desired dose/stock strength) × stock volume. Always keep the units the same (convert g to mg, mg to mcg first) and check that the answer is sensible.
答案: V = 0.93 mL
抽取剂量:体积 = (处方剂量/药物浓度) × 药物体积。先换算成相同的单位,再检查该体积是否适合注射器,并落在它的某一个刻度上。
在这支 1 mL 的注射器上,每条小刻度线代表 0.01 mL。
答案: R = 21 gtt/min
输注速率:输液泵按 mL/h = 体积/时间(小时)设定。重力滴注按每分钟滴数计:gtt/min = 体积 (mL) × 滴系数 (gtt/mL)/时间 (min)。 滴系数印在输液器包装上:普通输液器为 10、15 或 20 gtt/mL(输血器在美国常为 10 gtt/mL,在英国为 15),微量输液器为 60 gtt/mL。务必使用题目或包装给出的滴系数。
床旁取最接近的整滴:21 滴/分。
答案: Δ = 21.6 %
Infusion rates: a pump is set in mL/h = volume/time in hours. A gravity drip is counted in drops per minute: gtt/min = volume (mL) × drop factor (gtt/mL)/time (min). The drop factor is printed on the tubing package: macrodrip sets deliver 10, 15 or 20 gtt/mL (blood sets often 10 gtt/mL in the US, 15 in the UK) and microdrip sets 60 gtt/mL. Always use the drop factor the question or package gives.
许多医院允许在不重开医嘱的情况下进行不超过 25% 的此类调整;请查阅本院规定。
答案: B = 930 mL
出入量:入量计入所有进入体内的液体(口服液体、静脉输液、静脉用药及冲管液、管饲);冰屑按其体积的一半计。出量计入尿液、引流液、呕吐物和其他丢失。平衡 = 总入量 − 总出量;平衡为负表示净丢失。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
为正:摄入的液体多于排出的液体。
答案: t = 3.8 h
输液时间:时间 (h) = 待输体积 (mL)/速率 (mL/h);使用袋中剩余的体积,而不是袋的容量。已输入体积 = 速率 × 时间。把小数小时换算为小时和分钟时,用小数部分 × 60(0.5 h = 30 min,而不是 50 min)。 这些数字仅供练习;在临床工作中务必遵循当地规程,高危剂量须经双人核对。
约为 3 h 45 min,所以袋子大约在 14:45 输完。
答案: B = 10
Braden 量表:评估压力性损伤风险的六个分项。感觉知觉、潮湿程度、活动、活动能力和营养各评 1 至 4 分,从最差水平(1)到无问题(4);摩擦力和剪切力评 1 至 3 分。总分为 6 至 23,总分越低风险越高。常用分级:19–23 无风险,15–18 轻度风险,13–14 中度风险,10–12 高风险,9 分及以下为极高风险。
答案: 肥胖 III 级
体质指数:BMI = 体重(kg)/身高(m)²,身高要先换算为米。使用磅和英寸时,BMI = 703 × 体重(lb)/身高(in)²。WHO 成人分类:低于 18.5 为体重过轻,18.5–24.9 为健康体重,25.0–29.9 为超重,30.0–34.9 为肥胖 I 级,35.0–39.9 为肥胖 II 级,40 及以上为肥胖 III 级。
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