Genetics
- Monohybrid cross (Aa × Aa)
- genotypes 1 : 2 : 1, phenotypes 3 : 1
- Dihybrid cross
- phenotypes 9 : 3 : 3 : 1
- Hardy–Weinberg
- p + q = 1, p² + 2pq + q² = 1
- Independent genes
- multiply the probabilities
Formula sheets, the key method steps for every topic and 4 practice problems, with full solutions at the back.
haemophilia is X-linked recessive (allele h). A carrier mother, XHXh, has children with an affected father, XhY. The mother's gametes run down the side. Click the cell for an affected daughter.
Two AaBb parents are crossed. Gene A gives yellow seeds (dominant) or green seeds; gene B gives purple flowers (dominant) or white flowers. Click the one cell for an offspring that is homozygous for yellow seeds and shows white flowers.
Apoptosis is:
In the Meselson–Stahl experiment, bacteria grown in ¹⁵N were moved to ¹⁴N. After one round of replication all DNA formed one band of intermediate density. Which model did this rule out?
Answer: Xh × Xh
Punnett square: one parent's gametes run along the top, the other's down the side. Each cell joins the gamete above it with the gamete beside it, and every cell is equally likely. A recessive trait only shows when both alleles are recessive; for an X-linked trait, sons get their only X from the mother.
Answer: Ab × Ab
Punnett square: one parent's gametes run along the top, the other's down the side. Each cell joins the gamete above it with the gamete beside it, and every cell is equally likely. A recessive trait only shows when both alleles are recessive; for an X-linked trait, sons get their only X from the mother.
A homozygous genotype needs the same gamete from both parents, so only one cell in the 16 fits.
Answer: C · Programmed cell death
Apoptosis removes damaged or unneeded cells in a controlled way via caspases; necrosis is uncontrolled death with inflammation.
Answer: C · The conservative model
Conservative replication would give separate heavy and light bands. The single hybrid band ruled it out; after the second generation, a light band appeared, which ruled out the dispersive model.
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