Differential equations
- Exponential growth/decay
- dy/dt = ky → y = y0ekt
- Half-life
- k = ln 2 / t½
- Newton's law of cooling
- T(t) = Ta + (T0 − Ta)e−kt
- Integrating factor
- y′ + p(x)y = q(x): μ = e∫p dx, (μy)′ = μq
- Mixing tank
- dm/dt = r·c − (r/V)·m
Differential Equations: cram pack
Formula sheets, the key method steps for every topic and 8 practice problems, with full solutions at the back.
1Formulas and methods
Integrals
- Power rule
- ∫xⁿ dx = xⁿ⁺¹/(n + 1) + C
- Definite integral
- ∫ab f dx = F(b) − F(a)
- Common integrals
- ∫eˣ dx = eˣ, ∫1/x dx = ln|x|, ∫sin x dx = −cos x
- Area between curves
- ∫ab (f − g) dx
Method
- Rewrite the integrand as a sum of simple terms where possible.
- Apply the power rule: ∫xⁿ dx = xⁿ⁺¹/(n + 1), and standard integrals for ex, 1/x, sin and cos.
- Use substitution when you see a function and its derivative together.
- For a definite integral, evaluate F(b) − F(a).
Derivatives
- Power rule
- (xⁿ)′ = n·xⁿ⁻¹
- Product rule
- (uv)′ = u′v + uv′
- Quotient rule
- (u/v)′ = (u′v − uv′)/v²
- Chain rule
- f(g(x))′ = f′(g(x))·g′(x)
- Common derivatives
- (eˣ)′ = eˣ, (ln x)′ = 1/x, (sin x)′ = cos x, (cos x)′ = −sin x
Method
- Identify the structure: sum, product, quotient or composition.
- Apply the power rule to each power of x.
- Use the product, quotient or chain rule where needed.
- Simplify, and evaluate at the point if asked.
Numerical methods
- Bisection
- c = (a + b)/2, width after n steps (b − a)/2ⁿ
- Newton–Raphson
- xn+1 = xₙ − f(xₙ)/f′(xₙ)
- Linear interpolation
- y = y₁ + (y₂ − y₁)(x − x₁)/(x₂ − x₁)
- Trapezoid rule
- T = (h/2)[f₀ + 2f₁ + … + 2fn−1 + fₙ], h = (b − a)/n
- Simpson’s rule (n even)
- S = (h/3)[f₀ + 4f₁ + 2f₂ + … + 4fn−1 + fₙ]
- Trapezoid error bound
- |E| ≤ (b − a)h²M/12, M = max|f″|
- Euler
- yn+1 = yₙ + h·f(tₙ, yₙ)
- Heun
- yn+1 = yₙ + (h/2)(k₁ + k₂), k₂ = f(tₙ + h, yₙ + hk₁)
- RK4
- yn+1 = yₙ + (h/6)(k₁ + 2k₂ + 2k₃ + k₄)
Method
- For a root: check the sign change for bisection, or compute f and f′ for Newton, and keep six or more digits in a table of iterates.
- For a table value: interpolate linearly between the two neighbouring points.
- For an integral: find h = (b − a)/n, list f at every node, apply the weights (1, 2, …, 2, 1 for trapezoid; 1, 4, 2, …, 4, 1 for Simpson with even n) and multiply by h/2 or h/3.
- For an ODE: step from t₀ with yₙ₊₁ = yₙ + h·f(tₙ, yₙ) (Euler) or the averaged slope (Heun), one row per step, until you reach the requested t.
2Practice problems
1.Differential equationsMedium
A can of soda at 5 °C is taken out of the fridge into a room at 29 °C. After 29 min its temperature is 19 °C. It follows Newton's law of cooling, dT/dt = −k·(T − Tₐ). How long after the start, t, does it take to reach 9 °C?
T0 = 5 °CTa = 29 °CT(29) = 19 °CT = 9 °C
t = min
2.Differential equationsHard
Solve y′ + y = 8e−2t with y(0) = 2. Find y(1.5).
y′ + y = 8e−2ty(0) = 2
y(1.5) =
3.IntegralsMedium
Evaluate I = ∫01 2x·(x² + 1)2 dx.
f(x) = 2x·(x² + 1)2[0, 1]
I =
4.IntegralsHard
Find the area A of the region enclosed by y = 2x2 and y = x.
y = 2x2y = x
A =
5.DerivativesMedium
Let f(x) = x·sin(2x), with x in radians. Find f′(1.5).
f(x) = x·sin(2x)x = 1.5 rad
f′(1.5) =
6.DerivativesHard
Let f(x) = x3 − 12x2 + 36x + 6. Find the x-coordinate x of the local minimum.
f(x) = x3 − 12x2 + 36x + 6
x =
7.Numerical methodsMedium
Approximate ∫01 e−x² dx with the trapezoid rule using n = 4 strips. Give T.
f(x) = e−x²[a, b] = [0, 1]n = 4
T =
8.Numerical methodsHard
Use Heun's method (improved Euler) with h = 0.5 for y′ = y(2 − y), y(0) = 1 to estimate y2 ≈ y(1).
y′ = y(2 − y)y(0) = 1h = 0.5
y2 =
3Solutions
1.Differential equations
Answer: t = 6.039 min
First-order differential equations: dy/dt = k·y has the solution y = y₀·ekt (growth for k > 0, decay for k < 0); a half-life T gives k = ln 2/T. Newton's law of cooling, dT/dt = −k·(T − Tₐ), gives T(t) = Tₐ + (T₀ − Tₐ)·e−kt. A linear equation y′ + p(x)·y = q(x) is solved with the integrating factor μ = e∫p dx: (μy)′ = μq, so μy = ∫μq dx + C.
Cooling constant
k = ln(-24/-10)/29 = 0.03019 min⁻¹
Time to reach the target
t = ln(-24/(−20))/0.03019 = 6.039 min
Answer
t = 6.039 min
2.Differential equations
Answer: y(1.5) = 1.833
First-order differential equations: dy/dt = k·y has the solution y = y₀·ekt (growth for k > 0, decay for k < 0); a half-life T gives k = ln 2/T. Newton's law of cooling, dT/dt = −k·(T − Tₐ), gives T(t) = Tₐ + (T₀ − Tₐ)·e−kt. A linear equation y′ + p(x)·y = q(x) is solved with the integrating factor μ = e∫p dx: (μy)′ = μq, so μy = ∫μq dx + C.
Integrating factor
μ = et
(ety)′ = 8e−t
General solution
y = 8/(−1)·e−2t + C·e−t = −8·e−2t + C·e−t
Initial condition
2 = −8 + C → C = 10
Evaluate
y(1.5) = −8·0.04979 + 10·0.2231 = 1.833
Answer
y(1.5) = 1.833
3.Integrals
Answer: I = 2.333
Definite integrals: ∫ₐᵇ f(x) dx is the signed area between the graph and the x-axis from a to b. Find an antiderivative F (with F′ = f) and evaluate F(b) − F(a). Power rule: ∫xⁿ dx = xⁿ⁺¹/(n + 1). The area between two curves is ∫(upper − lower) dx.
Substitution
u = x² + 1, du = 2x dx
I = ∫12 u2 du
Integrate and evaluate
I = [u3/3]12 = (8 − 1)/3 = 2.333
Answer
I = 2.333
4.Integrals
Answer: A = 0.04167
Definite integrals: ∫ₐᵇ f(x) dx is the signed area between the graph and the x-axis from a to b. Find an antiderivative F (with F′ = f) and evaluate F(b) − F(a). Power rule: ∫xⁿ dx = xⁿ⁺¹/(n + 1). The area between two curves is ∫(upper − lower) dx.
Intersection points
2x2 = x → x = 0, x = 0.5
Integrate upper minus lower
A = [0.5x2 − 0.6667x3]00.5 = 0.04167
Answer
A = 0.04167
5.Derivatives
Answer: f′(1.5) = −2.829
Differentiation: the derivative f′(x) is the slope of the graph at x. Power rule: (xⁿ)′ = n·xⁿ⁻¹. Product rule: (uv)′ = u′v + uv′. Chain rule: (f(g(x)))′ = f′(g(x))·g′(x). Where f′(x) = 0 the graph has a horizontal tangent: a maximum, minimum or saddle point.
Product and chain rule
f′(x) = sin(2x) + 2x·cos(2x)
Substitute
f′(1.5) = 0.1411 + 3·(−0.99) = −2.829
Answer
f′(1.5) = −2.829
6.Derivatives
Answer: x = 6
Differentiation: the derivative f′(x) is the slope of the graph at x. Power rule: (xⁿ)′ = n·xⁿ⁻¹. Product rule: (uv)′ = u′v + uv′. Chain rule: (f(g(x)))′ = f′(g(x))·g′(x). Where f′(x) = 0 the graph has a horizontal tangent: a maximum, minimum or saddle point.
Derivative
f′(x) = 3x2 − 24x + 36 = 3·(x2 − 8x + 12)
Solve f′(x) = 0
x = 2 or x = 6
Which one is which
f″(x) = 6x − 24: negative at a maximum, positive at a minimum.
f″(2) = −12, f″(6) = 12
x = 6
Answer
x = 6
7.Numerical methods
Answer: T = 0.743
Numerical integration: split [a, b] into n strips of width h = (b − a)/n with nodes x₀ … xₙ. Trapezoid rule: T = (h/2)[f₀ + 2f₁ + 2f₂ + … + 2fn−1 + fₙ]. Simpson's rule (n even): S = (h/3)[f₀ + 4f₁ + 2f₂ + 4f₃ + … + 4fn−1 + fₙ]. The trapezoid error shrinks like h² (bound (b − a)h²·M/12 with M = max|f″|), Simpson's like h⁴, so Simpson is usually far more accurate for the same nodes.
Nodes and values
h = 0.25
Σ wᵢfᵢ = 1 + 2·0.939413 + 2·0.778801 + 2·0.569783 + 0.367879 = 5.943873
Trapezoid rule
T = (0.25/2)·5.943873 = 0.743
Answer
T = 0.743
This integral has no elementary antiderivative, which is exactly when a numerical rule is needed.
8.Numerical methods
Answer: y2 = 1.712
Numerical solution of y′ = f(t, y): Euler's method steps along the slope at the start of each step: yn+1 = yₙ + h·f(tₙ, yₙ). Heun's method (improved Euler) averages the slope at the start and at an Euler prediction: k₁ = f(tₙ, yₙ), k₂ = f(tₙ + h, yₙ + h·k₁), yn+1 = yₙ + (h/2)(k₁ + k₂). The classical Runge–Kutta method (RK4) combines four slopes: yn+1 = yₙ + (h/6)(k₁ + 2k₂ + 2k₃ + k₄). The global error of Euler is proportional to h, Heun's to h², RK4's to h⁴.
Heun steps
y₁ = 1 + (0.5/2)(1 + 0.75) = 1.4375
y₂ = 1.4375 + (0.5/2)(0.808594 + 0.291378) = 1.712493
Graph
y2 = 1.712
Answer
y2 = 1.712
The exact value is y(1) = 1.761594.
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