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1Formulas and methods
ECG rhythm strip interpretation
Paper (25 mm/s, 10 mm/mV)
1 small box = 0.04 s, 1 large box = 0.20 s, 10 mm = 1 mV
Heart rate, regular rhythm
300 ÷ large boxes = 1500 ÷ small boxes = 60 ÷ RR (s)
Heart rate, irregular rhythm
QRS complexes in 6 s × 10
Normal PR interval
0.12–0.20 s
Normal QRS duration
< 0.12 s
QTc (Bazett)
QT/√RR
QTc (Fridericia)
QT/∛RR
QTc (Framingham)
QT + 154·(1 − RR)
Sinus rates
bradycardia < 60, normal 60–100, tachycardia > 100 /min
Escape rates
junctional 40–60, ventricular 20–40 /min
Fast rhythms
SVT 150–250 /min (narrow), VT > 100 /min (wide)
Method
Rate: for a regular rhythm divide 300 by the large boxes or 1500 by the small boxes between two R waves; for an irregular rhythm count the QRS complexes in 6 seconds and multiply by 10.
Rhythm: compare the R–R intervals. Equal is regular; a repeating pattern is regularly irregular; no pattern at all is irregularly irregular.
P waves: is there an upright P wave in lead II before every QRS, all alike? Look for fibrillatory or sawtooth waves, inverted P waves and P waves without a QRS.
PR interval: from the start of P to the start of the QRS, normally 0.12–0.20 s and constant. Watch whether it lengthens, stays fixed before a dropped beat, or varies at random.
QRS duration: below 0.12 s is narrow; 0.12 s or more is wide. Then name the rhythm, and for the QT use QTc = QT/√RR (Bazett) with times in seconds.
2Practice problems
1.ECG rhythm strip interpretationMedium
Interpret this lead II rhythm strip. Which rhythm is it? Click your answer.
lead II, 25 mm/s, 10 mm/mV1 small box = 0.04 s, 1 large box = 0.20 sstrip length 6 s
1sinus arrhythmia
2sinus bradycardia
3atrial fibrillation
4normal sinus rhythm
2.ECG rhythm strip interpretationHard
This patient has a pacemaker. Interpret the lead II strip. Click your answer.
lead II, 25 mm/s, 10 mm/mV1 small box = 0.04 s, 1 large box = 0.20 sstrip length 6 s
1idioventricular rhythm
2sinus rhythm with wide QRS
3third-degree (complete) AV block
4dual-chamber (AV) paced rhythm
3.Human physiologyMedium
What is the main effect of aldosterone on the kidney?
ASodium reabsorption and potassium secretion in the distal nephron
BIncreased filtration in the glomerulus
CGlucose reabsorption in the proximal tubule
DWater reabsorption by inserting aquaporins only
4.Human physiologyHard
A patient's arterial blood gas shows pH 7.30, PaCO₂ 7.8 kPa (59 mmHg) and normal bicarbonate. What is the most likely disturbance?
ACompensated metabolic alkalosis
BAcute respiratory acidosis
CRespiratory alkalosis
DMetabolic acidosis
3Solutions
1.ECG rhythm strip interpretation
Answer: sinus arrhythmia
Rhythm criteria (lead II): sinus rhythm has an upright P wave before every QRS, a constant PR of 0.12–0.20 s and a narrow QRS: normal sinus rhythm at 60–100/min, sinus bradycardia below 60, sinus tachycardia above 100. Atrial fibrillation: no P waves, a fibrillatory baseline and an irregularly irregular R–R. Atrial flutter: sawtooth flutter waves at about 250–350/min with a fixed conduction ratio such as 2:1 or 4:1. First-degree AV block: sinus rhythm with a constant PR above 0.20 s. Junctional rhythm: narrow QRS at 40–60/min with absent or inverted P waves (PR below 0.12 s, or P after the QRS). A PVC is an early, wide (0.12 s or more), bizarre QRS without a P wave, with the T wave in the opposite direction and usually a full compensatory pause; in bigeminy every second beat is a PVC.
Five steps
1. Rate: 7 QRS complexes in 6 s, × 10 = 70 per minute.
2. Rhythm: irregular, R–R from 0.74 to 1.06 s, lengthening and shortening gradually.
3. P waves: upright, one before every QRS, all alike.
4. PR interval: 0.16 s, constant, within 0.12–0.20 s.
5. QRS: 0.08 s, narrow (below 0.12 s).
Interpretation
sinus arrhythmia
Answer
sinus arrhythmia
2.ECG rhythm strip interpretation
Answer: dual-chamber (AV) paced rhythm
Paced rhythms: a pacemaker impulse shows as a narrow vertical pacing spike. After a ventricular spike the QRS is wide (0.12 s or more), because the impulse spreads from the lead through the muscle instead of the conduction system; with right-ventricular pacing it is often mostly negative in lead II. A spike before each P wave means atrial pacing, and a dual-chamber (AV) pacemaker shows an atrial spike and a P wave, then, after the programmed AV delay, a ventricular spike and a wide QRS. Capture means every spike is followed by a depolarisation. Failure to capture is a spike without a P wave or QRS after it; failure to sense (spikes that ignore the patient’s own beats) and failure to pace (no spike when one is due) are the other classic malfunctions.
Five steps
1. Rate: R–R = 21 small boxes, 1500 ÷ 21 ≈ 71 per minute.
2. Rhythm: regular, every R–R is 0.84 s.
3. P waves: each P wave follows its own pacing spike (atrial pacing).
4. AV interval: the second spike comes 0.18 s after the first one (the programmed AV delay).
5. QRS: 0.16 s, wide, right after the second spike (ventricular pacing).
Interpretation
dual-chamber (AV) paced rhythm
Answer
dual-chamber (AV) paced rhythm
The paced QRS is wide by nature; do not call it a bundle branch block or a ventricular rhythm.
3.Human physiology
Answer: A · Sodium reabsorption and potassium secretion in the distal nephron
Why this is the answer
Aldosterone acts on the distal tubule and collecting duct to increase Na⁺ reabsorption and K⁺ secretion. Water follows the sodium, raising blood volume.
Answer
A · Sodium reabsorption and potassium secretion in the distal nephron
4.Human physiology
Answer: B · Acute respiratory acidosis
Why this is the answer
Low pH with high CO₂ points to a respiratory acidosis. Bicarbonate has not risen yet, so the kidneys have not compensated: it is acute.