In the print window, choose “Save as PDF” to keep a copy on your device.
1Formulas and methods
ECG rhythm strip interpretation
Paper (25 mm/s, 10 mm/mV)
1 small box = 0.04 s, 1 large box = 0.20 s, 10 mm = 1 mV
Heart rate, regular rhythm
300 ÷ large boxes = 1500 ÷ small boxes = 60 ÷ RR (s)
Heart rate, irregular rhythm
QRS complexes in 6 s × 10
Normal PR interval
0.12–0.20 s
Normal QRS duration
< 0.12 s
QTc (Bazett)
QT/√RR
QTc (Fridericia)
QT/∛RR
QTc (Framingham)
QT + 154·(1 − RR)
Sinus rates
bradycardia < 60, normal 60–100, tachycardia > 100 /min
Escape rates
junctional 40–60, ventricular 20–40 /min
Fast rhythms
SVT 150–250 /min (narrow), VT > 100 /min (wide)
Method
Rate: for a regular rhythm divide 300 by the large boxes or 1500 by the small boxes between two R waves; for an irregular rhythm count the QRS complexes in 6 seconds and multiply by 10.
Rhythm: compare the R–R intervals. Equal is regular; a repeating pattern is regularly irregular; no pattern at all is irregularly irregular.
P waves: is there an upright P wave in lead II before every QRS, all alike? Look for fibrillatory or sawtooth waves, inverted P waves and P waves without a QRS.
PR interval: from the start of P to the start of the QRS, normally 0.12–0.20 s and constant. Watch whether it lengthens, stays fixed before a dropped beat, or varies at random.
QRS duration: below 0.12 s is narrow; 0.12 s or more is wide. Then name the rhythm, and for the QT use QTc = QT/√RR (Bazett) with times in seconds.
2Practice problems
1.ECG rhythm strip interpretationMedium
Measure the QT interval and the R–R interval on this regular lead II strip, then calculate the rate-corrected QTc with Fridericia’s formula QTc = QT/∛RR (both in seconds). Give the answer in seconds to three decimals.
lead II, 25 mm/s, 10 mm/mV1 small box = 0.04 s, 1 large box = 0.20 sstrip length 6 s
QTc = s
2.ECG rhythm strip interpretationHard
Interpret this lead II strip with the five steps in order: rate, rhythm, P waves, PR interval, QRS duration. At which step do you find the first abnormal finding? Click it.
lead II, 25 mm/s, 10 mm/mV1 small box = 0.04 s, 1 large box = 0.20 sstrip length 6 s
1rate
2rhythm
3P waves
4PR interval
5QRS duration
3.Human physiologyMedium
Which hormone is released by the adrenal cortex in response to ACTH?
ACortisol
BThyroxine
CAdrenaline
DAldosterone, as the main response
4.Human physiologyHard
Why does fetal haemoglobin have a higher affinity for oxygen than adult haemoglobin?
AFetal blood has a higher pH
BIt contains more iron per haem
CIt has five subunits instead of four
DIt binds 2,3-BPG less strongly
3Solutions
1.ECG rhythm strip interpretation
Answer: QTc = 0.478 s
QT and QTc: the QT interval runs from the start of the QRS complex to the end of the T wave. It shortens as the heart rate rises, so it is corrected for rate with the R–R interval in seconds: Bazett QTc = QT/√RR and Fridericia QTc = QT/∛RR. Bazett is the formula most textbooks use; it over-corrects at fast rates, where Fridericia is preferred. Limits differ between references: a QTc above about 0.45 s in men or 0.46 s in women is usually called prolonged, and above 0.50 s markedly prolonged.
Measure
QT = 10.5 × 0.04 = 0.42 s
RR = 17 × 0.04 = 0.68 s
Fridericia’s formula
QTc = 0.42/∛0.68 = 0.42/0.8794 = 0.478 s
Answer
QTc = 0.478 s
Above the usual limits for both men (about 0.45 s) and women (about 0.46 s): prolonged. (478 ms)
2.ECG rhythm strip interpretation
Answer: QRS duration
Five steps for every strip: 1. rate (300 or 1500 method, or the 6-second method if irregular); 2. rhythm: are the R–R intervals equal; 3. P waves: present, upright in lead II, one before every QRS and all alike; 4. PR interval: 0.12–0.20 s and constant; 5. QRS duration: below 0.12 s. Only after the five steps name the rhythm. Normal sinus rhythm passes all five: 60–100/min, regular, upright P before every QRS, PR 0.12–0.20 s, QRS below 0.12 s.
Five steps
1. Rate: R–R = 16 small boxes, 1500 ÷ 16 ≈ 94 per minute.
2. Rhythm: regular, every R–R is 0.64 s.
3. P waves: upright, one before every QRS, all alike.
4. PR interval: 0.16 s, constant, within 0.12–0.20 s.
5. QRS: 0.16 s, wide (0.12 s or more).
First abnormal step
QRS duration → sinus rhythm with wide QRS
Answer
QRS duration
3.Human physiology
Answer: A · Cortisol
Why this is the answer
ACTH from the anterior pituitary stimulates cortisol release from the zona fasciculata. Adrenaline comes from the adrenal medulla.
Answer
A · Cortisol
4.Human physiology
Answer: D · It binds 2,3-BPG less strongly
Why this is the answer
The gamma chains of HbF bind 2,3-BPG poorly, so the curve is shifted left. This lets fetal blood take oxygen from maternal blood in the placenta.