Investments and Valuation: cram pack

Formula sheets, the key method steps for every topic and 8 practice problems, with full solutions at the back.

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1Formulas and methods

Time value of money

Future value: FV = PV·(1 + i)ⁿ
Present value: PV = FV/(1 + i)ⁿ
Several periods per year: i = r/m, N = m·n
Annuity, present value: PV = PMT·[1 − (1 + i)⁻ⁿ]/i
Annuity, future value: FV = PMT·[(1 + i)ⁿ − 1]/i

Method

Draw a timeline with every cash flow and its timing.
Match the rate to the period: a monthly rate for monthly payments.
Use FV = PV·(1 + i)ⁿ for single amounts and the annuity formulas for equal payments.
Check the sign and the order of magnitude of the answer.

Bond pricing & yield

Bond price: P = C·(1 − (1 + y)⁻ⁿ)/y + F/(1 + y)ⁿ
Semi-annual: C/2, y/2 and 2n periods
Current yield: C/P
Price and yield: yield up → price down

Method

Find the coupon per period and the yield per period.
Price = present value of the coupons (an annuity) + present value of the face value.
For semi-annual coupons use half the coupon, half the yield and twice the periods.
Check: if the yield is above the coupon rate, the price is below face value.

CAPM & WACC

CAPM: r_e = r_f + β·(r_m − r_f)
WACC: E/V·r_e + D/V·r_d·(1 − T)
Firm value: V = E + D

NPV & IRR

Net present value: NPV = −C₀ + Σ CF_t/(1 + r)^t
Equal cash flows: NPV = −C₀ + CF·[1 − (1 + r)⁻ⁿ]/r
Internal rate of return: the r at which NPV = 0
Decision: accept when NPV > 0 (or IRR > required return)

Method

List all cash flows with their year; the investment at year 0 is negative.
Discount each cash flow: CF_t/(1 + r)^t.
Add them up to get the NPV. Positive means the project earns more than r.
For the IRR, find the rate that makes NPV zero by trial or interpolation.

2Practice problems

1.Time value of moneyMedium

You invest €5 000 at a nominal rate of 4.8% per year, compounded quarterly. Find the value FV of the investment after 6 years.

PV = €5 0004.8% / 4n = 6

FV = €

2.Time value of moneyHard

You borrow €10 000 at 4.8% per year, compounded monthly, and repay €200 at the end of every month. How many months does it take until the loan is repaid (the last payment may be smaller)? Give the number of payments N.

P = €10 000A = €2004.8% / 12

N = payments

3.Bond pricing & yieldMedium

A bond with a face value of €1 000 pays a 4% annual coupon in two half-yearly payments and matures in 4 years. The yield to maturity is 2.5% per year. Find the price P of the bond.

F = €1 000coupon = 4%YTM = 2.5%n = 4

P = €

4.Bond pricing & yieldHard

A bond with a face value of €1 000 pays an annual coupon of 5% and matures in 3 years. The yield to maturity is 3.5%. Find the Macaulay duration D in years.

F = €1 000coupon = 5%n = 3YTM = 3.5%

D = years

5.CAPM & WACCMedium

A company is financed with ordinary shares worth €6 000 000, preferred shares worth €1 000 000 and debt worth €5 000 000. The cost of equity is 12%, the cost of preferred stock 7% and the pre-tax cost of debt 3%. The tax rate is 28%. Find the WACC.

E = €6 000 000P_s = €1 000 000D = €5 000 000r_e = 12%r_p = 7%r_d = 3%T = 28%

WACC = %

6.CAPM & WACCHard

A company has equity with a market value of €8 000 000 and a cost of equity of 10%. Its debt consists of 5 000 bonds (face value €1 000, annual coupon 4%, 9 years to maturity) that trade at €896 each. The tax rate is 20%. Find the WACC, using the yield to maturity of the bonds as the pre-tax cost of debt.

E = €8 000 000r_e = 10%bonds: 5 000 × €896coupon = 4%n = 9T = 20%

WACC = %

7.NPV & IRRMedium

A machine costs €20 000 today, lasts 8 years and costs €5 000 per year to run (paid at the end of each year). The cost of capital is 5%. Find its equivalent annual cost EAC.

C₀ = €20 000M = €5 000n = 8r = 5%

EAC = €

8.NPV & IRRHard

An investment of €40 000 returns €8 500 at the end of each year for 9 years. Find its internal rate of return IRR in percent.

C₀ = €40 000CF = €8 500n = 9

IRR = %

3Solutions

1.Time value of money

Answer: FV = 6657 €

Time value of money: money today is worth more than the same amount later, because it can earn interest. With interest rate i per period, an amount grows as FV = PV·(1 + i)ⁿ. A series of equal payments (an annuity) is valued by adding up each payment, which gives the annuity formulas.

Rate and number of periods

i = r/m = 0.048/4 = 0.012

N = m·n = 4·6 = 24

Future value

FV = 5 000·(1 + 0.012)²⁴ = 5 000·1.331 = €6 657.36

Answer

FV = €6 657.36

2.Time value of money

Answer: N = 56 payments

Rearrange the annuity formula

i = 0.004

(1 + i)^−N = 1 − 10 000·0.004/200 = 0.8

Solve with logarithms

N = −ln(0.8)/ln(1.004) = 55.9

Round up to whole payments

55 full payments leave a small balance, which the last, smaller payment clears.

N = 56

Answer

N = 56 payments

3.Bond pricing & yield

Answer: P = 1057 €

Bond pricing: a bond’s price is the present value of its cash flows, discounted at the yield to maturity (YTM): the coupons form an annuity and the face value is paid back at maturity. P = C·(1 − (1 + y)⁻ⁿ)/y + F/(1 + y)ⁿ. When the yield is above the coupon rate the bond trades below face value, and the other way round.

Per period

C = €20.00, i = 0.0125, N = 8

Present value of the coupons

€20.00·(1 − 0.9054)/0.0125 = €151.36

Present value of the face value

€1 000·0.9054 = €905.40

Price

P = €1 056.76

Answer

P = €1 056.76

The yield is below the coupon rate, so the bond sells at a premium.

4.Bond pricing & yield

Answer: D = 2.862 years

Duration: the Macaulay duration is the weighted average time at which a bond pays its cash flows, with the present values of the cash flows as weights: D = Σ t·PVₜ/P. The modified duration D/(1 + y) estimates the percentage price change for a small change in yield: %ΔP ≈ −D_mod·Δy.

Present value of each cash flow

t = 1: 50/1.035 = 48.31, t·PV = 48.31

t = 2: 50/1.071 = 46.68, t·PV = 93.35

t = 3: 1050/1.109 = 947.04, t·PV = 2 841.12

Duration

P = 1 042.02

D = 2 982.78/1 042.02 = 2.862

Answer

D = 2.862 years

5.CAPM & WACC

Answer: WACC = 7.483 %

Cost of capital: CAPM gives the return shareholders require: r_e = r_f + β·(r_m − r_f). The weighted average cost of capital mixes equity and debt by their market values: WACC = E/V·r_e + D/V·r_d·(1 − T), with V = E + D. Interest is tax-deductible, hence the (1 − T).

Weights

V = 6 000 000 + 1 000 000 + 5 000 000 = €12 000 000

E/V = 0.5, P_s/V = 0.08333, D/V = 0.4167

WACC

WACC = 0.5·12% + 0.08333·7% + 0.4167·3%·(1 − 0.28) = 7.483%

Answer

WACC = 7.483%

6.CAPM & WACC

Answer: WACC = 7.988 %

Cost of debt (YTM)

896 = 40·(1 − (1 + y)⁻⁹)/y + 1000/(1 + y)⁹

y = 5.496%

Market values

D = 5 000·€896 = €4 480 000

V = €12 480 000, E/V = 0.641, D/V = 0.359

WACC

WACC = 0.641·10% + 0.359·5.496%·(1 − 0.2) = 7.988%

Answer

WACC = 7.988%

7.NPV & IRR

Answer: EAC = 8094 €

Equivalent annual cost: spread the present value of all costs over the life as an equal yearly amount (an annuity): EAC = PV·r/(1 − (1 + r)⁻ⁿ). It lets you compare machines with different lives.

Annuity factor

(1 − 1.05⁻⁸)/0.05 = 6.463

Annualised purchase price

20 000/6.463 = 3 094.44

EAC

EAC = 3 094.44 + 5 000 = €8 094.44

Answer

EAC = €8 094.44

8.NPV & IRR

Answer: IRR = 15.39 %

Net present value: discount every cash flow back to today with the required rate of return r, then add them up: NPV = Σ CFₜ/(1 + r)ᵗ. A project with NPV > 0 earns more than r and adds value. The internal rate of return (IRR) is the rate at which NPV = 0.

Required annuity factor

(1 − (1 + i)⁻⁹)/i = 40 000/8 500 = 4.706

Solve for the rate

The annuity factor falls as the rate rises; bracket the rate and narrow down.

i = 15%: 4.772

i = 16%: 4.607

IRR = 15.39%

Answer

IRR = 15.39%

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