内外科护理:速成包

公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 16 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。

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1公式与方法

内外科护理:心血管与呼吸

方法

  1. 说出问题所在:泵衰竭、动脉阻塞、节律、血栓、气道狭窄、感染或设备问题。
  2. 先检查危险征象:低氧、低血压、胸痛、新出现的意识模糊、冰冷无脉搏的肢体。
  3. 让氧疗与患者相匹配:大多数人为 94–98%,有 CO₂ 潴留风险者为 88–92%。
  4. 把每种药物与其检测和风险联系起来:华法林与 INR,肝素与 aPTT 和血小板,利尿剂与血钾。
  5. 选择安全的第一步措施,然后升级处理并重新评估。

内外科护理:神经、内分泌与肾脏

方法

  1. 对每位新出现意识模糊、乏力或癫痫发作的患者都检查血糖。
  2. 把意识水平作为脑部问题最早的警示;瞳孔变化和库欣三联征出现得较晚。
  3. 对于糖尿病急症,要区分 DKA(酮体、酸中毒)和 HHS(渗透压很高、脱水);先补液。
  4. 对于钠和水,要判断是 ADH 过多(SIADH)还是缺乏(尿崩症),并缓慢纠正慢性变化。
  5. 对于肾脏问题,把原因分为肾前性、肾性或肾后性,并监测血钾和液体。

内外科护理:消化、围手术期与肿瘤

方法

  1. 想一想可能隐藏着什么:内出血、无发热的感染、SpO₂ 正常背后的通气不足。
  2. 利用术后的时间来缩小并发症的范围:出血在数小时内,胸部问题在数天内,伤口和吻合口漏出现得更晚。
  3. 对于疼痛,要评估、用多模式镇痛治疗、重新评估,并且在每次使用阿片类药物时监测镇静程度。
  4. 对于癌症患者,把低谷期的任何疾病都当作中性粒细胞减少性脓毒症处理,并了解肿瘤急症。
  5. 对于烧伤,只计算浅二度/深二度和三度的面积,从烧伤的时刻开始计算 Parkland 时间,并根据尿量调整。

实验室检查值与电解质

方法

  1. 把数值与本实验室自己的参考范围比较,再与患者的基线和趋势比较。
  2. 检查标本:溶血、延迟,或在静脉输液附近采血都可能得出错误结果。
  3. 把数值与其典型体征以及引起它的药物和疾病联系起来。
  4. 注意相互作用:低钾或低镁会增加地高辛中毒的风险;脱水会使锂浓度升高。
  5. 对患者采取行动:评估,血药浓度不安全时暂停用药,复述危急值并通知开医嘱的医生。

动脉血气分析解读

正常范围
pH 7.35–7.45, PaCO₂ 35–45 mmHg (4.7–6.0 kPa), HCO₃⁻ 22–26 mmol/L
ROME
呼吸性:PaCO₂ 与 pH 相反; 代谢性:HCO₃⁻ 与 pH 同向
温特公式
PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2
代谢性碱中毒
PaCO₂ ≈ 0.7·HCO₃⁻ + 21
阴离子间隙
AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻) ≈ 8–12
白蛋白校正阴离子间隙
AG + 2.5·(4.0 − alb g/dL) = AG + 0.25·(40 − alb g/L)
Δ 比值
(AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻)
P/F 比值
PaO₂/FiO₂
肺泡气方程
PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8
血清渗透压
2·Na⁺ + glucose + urea (2·Na⁺ + glucose/18 + BUN/2.8)

方法

  1. 先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸中毒,高于 7.45 为碱中毒。
  2. 找出能解释它的指标:PaCO₂ 与 pH 反向变化为呼吸性,HCO₃⁻ 与 pH 同向变化为代谢性。
  3. 再看另一个指标:正常表示未代偿,沿代偿方向异常表示部分代偿,pH 正常而两项指标都异常表示完全代偿。
  4. 对于代谢性酸中毒,用温特公式 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 与 PaCO₂ 比较,并计算阴离子间隙 Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻)。
  5. 阴离子间隙升高时,用 Δ 比值检查;白蛋白偏低时,再用校正后的间隙检查。

心电图节律条带解读

纸速(25 mm/s,10 mm/mV)
1 个小格 = 0.04 s, 1 个大格 = 0.20 s, 10 mm = 1 mV
心率,节律规则
300 ÷ 大格数 = 1500 ÷ 小格数 = 60 ÷ RR (s)
心率,节律不规则
6 s 内的 QRS 波群数 × 10
正常 PR 间期
0.12–0.20 s
正常 QRS 时限
< 0.12 s
QTc(Bazett)
QT/√RR
QTc(Fridericia)
QT/∛RR
QTc(Framingham)
QT + 154·(1 − RR)
窦性心率
心动过缓 < 60, 正常 60–100, 心动过速 > 100 次/分
逸搏心率
交界性 40–60, 室性 20–40 次/分
快速性心律
SVT 150–250 /min(窄), VT > 100 /min(宽)

方法

  1. 心率:节律规则时,用 300 除以两个 R 波之间的大格数,或用 1500 除以小格数;节律不规则时,数 6 秒内的 QRS 波群数并乘以 10。
  2. 节律:比较 R–R 间期。相等为规则;有重复规律为规律性不规则;完全没有规律为绝对不规则。
  3. P 波:II 导联中每个 QRS 之前是否都有直立的 P 波,且形态一致?注意寻找颤动波或锯齿状波、倒置的 P 波以及后面没有 QRS 的 P 波。
  4. PR 间期:从 P 波起点到 QRS 起点,正常为 0.12–0.20 s 且恒定。注意它是逐渐延长、在脱漏搏动之前保持固定,还是随机变化。
  5. QRS 时限:低于 0.12 s 为窄;0.12 s 或以上为宽。然后命名节律,QT 用 QTc = QT/√RR(Bazett),时间以秒计。

优先排序与委派

方法

  1. 问自己:如果什么都不做,什么会最快伤害患者。
  2. 应用 ABC(心脏骤停时为 C-A-B),然后是 Maslow 需求层次:生理需要先于安全,安全先于心理需要。
  3. 比较各选项:急性先于慢性,不稳定先于稳定,意外先于预期,全身性先于局部,并将每项发现与患者的基线对照。
  4. 除非是紧急情况,否则先评估再行动;然后选择其他步骤所依赖的那一步。
  5. 委派时核对五项正确:任务、情境、人员、指示和监督。评估、宣教和评价仍由注册护士负责。

2练习题

1.内外科护理:心血管与呼吸中等

A peripheral cannula site is red, warm, tender and swollen along the vein. What should the nurse do?

  1. ACover the site and keep using it until it blocks
  2. BFlush the cannula hard to clear it
  3. CLeave it in place, as this is normal after 24 hours
  4. DRemove the cannula, document and monitor the site
2.内外科护理:心血管与呼吸困难

A 74-year-old with atrial fibrillation, hypertension and diabetes asks why she needs an anticoagulant when she feels well. Which reply is best?

  1. AHer risk of stroke is high, and an anticoagulant lowers it
  2. BIt is given to lower her blood pressure
  3. CThe anticoagulant will stop the irregular heartbeat for good
  4. DIt is needed only while she has palpitations
3.内外科护理:神经、内分泌与肾脏中等

Why is pyridostigmine often taken about 30–60 minutes before meals by patients with myasthenia gravis?

  1. ATo stop the drug from irritating an empty stomach later on
  2. BTo lower the blood glucose rise after eating a meal
  3. CTo reduce stomach acid so the food is digested better
  4. DTo improve the strength of chewing and swallowing at mealtimes
4.内外科护理:神经、内分泌与肾脏困难

An 84-year-old man became more confused a week after starting oxybutynin. Infection has been ruled out. What should the nurse suspect?

  1. AAnticholinergic side effects of the drug
  2. BA sign that the drug dose is too low
  3. CA symptom of a high potassium from the drug
  4. DNormal ageing that needs no review
5.内外科护理:消化、围手术期与肿瘤中等

How can low-dose opioids help a patient with breathlessness from advanced cancer?

  1. AThey cure the underlying lung disease
  2. BThey open the airways like an inhaler
  3. CThey reduce the feeling of breathlessness
  4. DThey increase the oxygen level in the blood
6.内外科护理:消化、围手术期与肿瘤困难

A patient with three fractured ribs is taking shallow breaths because of pain. Why is effective analgesia a priority?

  1. APain relief is only needed for the patient's comfort
  2. BGood analgesia makes rib fractures heal fully within a few days
  3. CShallow breathing can lead to atelectasis and pneumonia
  4. DRib pain always means the heart is damaged
7.临床护理中等

Which rule is essential for safe use of patient-controlled analgesia (PCA)?

  1. AThe button should be pressed before each meal
  2. BRelatives should press it while the patient sleeps
  3. COnly the patient should press the button
  4. DThe nurse should press it every hour
8.临床护理困难

Why must blood samples for a cross-match be labelled at the bedside immediately after they are taken?

  1. ATo speed up the laboratory's computer system and reduce the waiting time
  2. BTo let the patient sign the label
  3. CTo keep the sample warm so the cells do not break down in transit
  4. DTo prevent "wrong blood in tube" errors that can cause fatal reactions
9.实验室检查值与电解质中等

一名意识清醒的患者血糖为 54 mg/dL(3.0 mmol/L),已摄入 15 g 速效碳水化合物。应在何时复测血糖?

  1. A第二天早晨
  2. B约 2 小时后
  3. C约 15 分钟后
  4. D下一餐时
10.实验室检查值与电解质困难

A nursing student has a positive interferon-gamma release assay (IGRA) for tuberculosis, no symptoms and a normal chest X-ray. What does this most likely mean?

  1. AActive pulmonary TB, which is contagious
  2. BPast BCG vaccination only, with no infection
  3. CA false result, as the test does not detect TB
  4. DLatent TB infection, which is not contagious
11.动脉血气分析解读中等

某练习血气显示 PaCO₂ 55 mmHg (7.3 kPa)。利用规则:在慢性呼吸性酸中毒中,PaCO₂ 每比 40 高出 10 mmHg,HCO₃⁻ 升高 3.5 mmol/L,以HCO₃⁻ 24 mmol/L 为起点,求预期HCO₃⁻。

PaCO₂ 55 mmHg (7.3 kPa)基线值: 40 mmHg, 24 mmol/L
HCO₃⁻ = mmol/L
12.动脉血气分析解读困难

某练习血气显示代谢性碱中毒,HCO₃⁻ 35 mmol/L。用预期 PaCO₂ = 0.7·HCO₃⁻ + 21 求预期PaCO₂。

HCO₃⁻ 35 mmol/L
PaCO₂ = mmHg
13.心电图节律条带解读中等
II25 mm/s · 10 mm/mV

这条 II 导联心电图显示心房扑动。测量扑动波间期,求出心房率(单位:次/分)。

II 导联,25 mm/s,10 mm/mV1 个小格 = 0.04 s,1 个大格 = 0.20 s条带长度 6 s
心房率 = bpm
14.心电图节律条带解读困难
II25 mm/s · 10 mm/mV

这条 II 导联心电图显示房室传导阻滞,所以心房和心室以不同的频率搏动。测量 P–P 间期,求出心房率(单位:次/分,1500 法,取整数)。

II 导联,25 mm/s,10 mm/mV1 个小格 = 0.04 s,1 个大格 = 0.20 s条带长度 6 s
心房率 = bpm
15.优先排序与委派中等

An older adult asks for something to help them sleep. Which drug is most likely to cause confusion and falls in this age group?

  1. ADiphenhydramine
  2. BAcetaminophen (paracetamol)
  3. CA warm milky drink
  4. DMelatonin
16.优先排序与委派困难

A patient has peripheral arterial disease with a non-healing ulcer on the toe. Which advice about leg position is correct?

  1. AKeep the legs raised above the heart as much as possible
  2. BSit with the legs crossed to improve blood flow
  3. CKeep the legs level or slightly lowered, not raised
  4. DWrap the legs tightly with compression bandages

3溶液

1.内外科护理:心血管与呼吸

答案: D · Remove the cannula, document and monitor the site

为什么是这个答案

Redness, pain, warmth and swelling along the vein indicate phlebitis. The cannula is removed, the site is observed for infection and the event is documented. Regular visual phlebitis scoring and removing cannulas that are no longer needed reduce the risk.

答案

D · Remove the cannula, document and monitor the site
2.内外科护理:心血管与呼吸

答案: A · Her risk of stroke is high, and an anticoagulant lowers it

为什么是这个答案

In AF, blood stasis in the left atrium causes clots that can travel to the brain. Scores such as CHA₂DS₂-VASc (age, hypertension, diabetes, female sex and others) estimate stroke risk; her score is high. Anticoagulation reduces stroke risk but does not change the rhythm.

答案

A · Her risk of stroke is high, and an anticoagulant lowers it
3.内外科护理:神经、内分泌与肾脏

答案: D · To improve the strength of chewing and swallowing at mealtimes

为什么是这个答案

Pyridostigmine inhibits acetylcholinesterase, so more acetylcholine is available at the neuromuscular junction. Timing it before meals gives the best muscle strength for chewing and swallowing, which lowers the risk of aspiration.

答案

D · To improve the strength of chewing and swallowing at mealtimes
4.内外科护理:神经、内分泌与肾脏

答案: A · Anticholinergic side effects of the drug

为什么是这个答案

Anticholinergic drugs such as oxybutynin can cause confusion and worsen cognition in older people. The prescriber should review the medicine and the patient's overall anticholinergic burden.

答案

A · Anticholinergic side effects of the drug
5.内外科护理:消化、围手术期与肿瘤

答案: C · They reduce the feeling of breathlessness

为什么是这个答案

In palliative care, low-dose opioids reduce the sensation of breathlessness and the anxiety it causes. Fans, positioning, relaxation and treating reversible causes are also used.

答案

C · They reduce the feeling of breathlessness
6.内外科护理:消化、围手术期与肿瘤

答案: C · Shallow breathing can lead to atelectasis and pneumonia

为什么是这个答案

Uncontrolled chest wall pain prevents deep breaths and coughing, leading to atelectasis, sputum retention and pneumonia, particularly in older adults. Multimodal analgesia, sometimes with regional blocks, and physiotherapy are used.

答案

C · Shallow breathing can lead to atelectasis and pneumonia
7.临床护理

答案: C · Only the patient should press the button

为什么是这个答案

If the patient becomes too sedated, they stop pressing the button, which protects them. When others press it, this safety mechanism is lost and overdose can occur.

答案

C · Only the patient should press the button
8.临床护理

答案: D · To prevent "wrong blood in tube" errors that can cause fatal reactions

为什么是这个答案

A sample labelled with the wrong patient's details can lead to incompatible blood being issued. Labelling at the bedside after positive identification is a key transfusion safety step.

答案

D · To prevent "wrong blood in tube" errors that can cause fatal reactions
9.实验室检查值与电解质

答案: C · 约 15 分钟后

为什么是这个答案

15 法则是指摄入 15 g 速效碳水化合物,15 分钟后复测,如果血糖仍低于 70 mg/dL(3.9 mmol/L)则重复。然后再吃点心或正餐有助于预防复发。核对依据: Low blood sugar - self-care · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026)

答案

C · 约 15 分钟后
10.实验室检查值与电解质

答案: D · Latent TB infection, which is not contagious

为什么是这个答案

A positive IGRA with no symptoms and a normal chest X-ray indicates latent TB infection, which cannot spread to others. Treatment of latent TB is often offered to prevent later active disease. The IGRA is much less likely than the skin test to give a false-positive result after BCG vaccination.核对依据: Tuberculosis Screening · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2026); PPD skin test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)

答案

D · Latent TB infection, which is not contagious
11.动脉血气分析解读

答案: HCO₃⁻ = 29.25 mmol/L

预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。

PaCO₂ 的变化

|55 − 40| = 15 mmHg → 1.5 × 10 mmHg

HCO₃⁻ 的预期值

HCO₃⁻ = 24 + 3.5·1.5 = 29.25 mmol/L

答案

HCO₃⁻ = 29.25 mmol/L
12.动脉血气分析解读

答案: PaCO₂ = 45.5 mmHg

预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。

PaCO₂ 的预期值

0.7·35 + 21 = 45.5 mmHg

答案

PaCO₂ = 45.5 mmHg

升高是有限度的:仅靠代偿,PaCO₂ 很少超过约 55 mmHg。

13.心电图节律条带解读

答案: 心房率 = 300 bpm

节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。

扑动波

F–F = 5 个小格 = 0.20 s → 1500 ÷ 5 = 300 次/分

QRS 波群

R–R = 15 个小格 = 0.60 s → 1500 ÷ 15 = 100 次/分
传导比例 = 300 ÷ 100 = 3:1

答案

心房率 = 300 bpm
14.心电图节律条带解读

答案: 心房率 = 100 bpm

房室传导阻滞:逐个标出 P 波,检查哪些 P 波后面跟着 QRS。一度:每个 P 波都下传,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。二度 I 型(Mobitz I,文氏现象):PR 逐搏延长,直到一个 P 波未下传,然后周期重新开始(成组搏动)。二度 II 型(Mobitz II):下传搏动的 PR 保持恒定,P 波突然不下传;QRS 常增宽。三度(完全性)阻滞:P 波和 QRS 波群各自规则但互相独立,PR 随机变化,心房率快于逸搏率(交界性逸搏 40–60 次/分,QRS 窄;室性逸搏 20–40 次/分,QRS 宽)。2:1 阻滞仅凭一份条带无法判断是 I 型还是 II 型。

心房率

P–P = 15 个小格 = 0.60 s → 1500 ÷ 15 = 100 ≈ 100 次/分

心室率

R–R = 36 个小格 = 1.44 s → 1500 ÷ 36 = 41.67 ≈ 42 次/分

答案

心房率 = 100 bpm

答案

心房率 = 100 bpm

三度阻滞,伴窄 QRS 交界性逸搏(通常为 40–60 次/分)。

15.优先排序与委派

答案: A · Diphenhydramine

为什么是这个答案

Diphenhydramine is strongly anticholinergic and can cause confusion, urinary retention and falls in older adults. It is on lists of drugs to avoid in this group.

答案

A · Diphenhydramine
16.优先排序与委派

答案: C · Keep the legs level or slightly lowered, not raised

为什么是这个答案

In arterial disease, gravity helps blood reach the feet, so legs are not elevated. Elevation and compression suit venous disease, and crossing the legs reduces flow further.

答案

C · Keep the legs level or slightly lowered, not raised

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