内外科护理:速成包

公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 16 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。

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1公式与方法

内外科护理:心血管与呼吸

方法

  1. 说出问题所在:泵衰竭、动脉阻塞、节律、血栓、气道狭窄、感染或设备问题。
  2. 先检查危险征象:低氧、低血压、胸痛、新出现的意识模糊、冰冷无脉搏的肢体。
  3. 让氧疗与患者相匹配:大多数人为 94–98%,有 CO₂ 潴留风险者为 88–92%。
  4. 把每种药物与其检测和风险联系起来:华法林与 INR,肝素与 aPTT 和血小板,利尿剂与血钾。
  5. 选择安全的第一步措施,然后升级处理并重新评估。

内外科护理:神经、内分泌与肾脏

方法

  1. 对每位新出现意识模糊、乏力或癫痫发作的患者都检查血糖。
  2. 把意识水平作为脑部问题最早的警示;瞳孔变化和库欣三联征出现得较晚。
  3. 对于糖尿病急症,要区分 DKA(酮体、酸中毒)和 HHS(渗透压很高、脱水);先补液。
  4. 对于钠和水,要判断是 ADH 过多(SIADH)还是缺乏(尿崩症),并缓慢纠正慢性变化。
  5. 对于肾脏问题,把原因分为肾前性、肾性或肾后性,并监测血钾和液体。

内外科护理:消化、围手术期与肿瘤

方法

  1. 想一想可能隐藏着什么:内出血、无发热的感染、SpO₂ 正常背后的通气不足。
  2. 利用术后的时间来缩小并发症的范围:出血在数小时内,胸部问题在数天内,伤口和吻合口漏出现得更晚。
  3. 对于疼痛,要评估、用多模式镇痛治疗、重新评估,并且在每次使用阿片类药物时监测镇静程度。
  4. 对于癌症患者,把低谷期的任何疾病都当作中性粒细胞减少性脓毒症处理,并了解肿瘤急症。
  5. 对于烧伤,只计算浅二度/深二度和三度的面积,从烧伤的时刻开始计算 Parkland 时间,并根据尿量调整。

实验室检查值与电解质

方法

  1. 把数值与本实验室自己的参考范围比较,再与患者的基线和趋势比较。
  2. 检查标本:溶血、延迟,或在静脉输液附近采血都可能得出错误结果。
  3. 把数值与其典型体征以及引起它的药物和疾病联系起来。
  4. 注意相互作用:低钾或低镁会增加地高辛中毒的风险;脱水会使锂浓度升高。
  5. 对患者采取行动:评估,血药浓度不安全时暂停用药,复述危急值并通知开医嘱的医生。

动脉血气分析解读

正常范围
pH 7.35–7.45, PaCO₂ 35–45 mmHg (4.7–6.0 kPa), HCO₃⁻ 22–26 mmol/L
ROME
呼吸性:PaCO₂ 与 pH 相反; 代谢性:HCO₃⁻ 与 pH 同向
温特公式
PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2
代谢性碱中毒
PaCO₂ ≈ 0.7·HCO₃⁻ + 21
阴离子间隙
AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻) ≈ 8–12
白蛋白校正阴离子间隙
AG + 2.5·(4.0 − alb g/dL) = AG + 0.25·(40 − alb g/L)
Δ 比值
(AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻)
P/F 比值
PaO₂/FiO₂
肺泡气方程
PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8
血清渗透压
2·Na⁺ + glucose + urea (2·Na⁺ + glucose/18 + BUN/2.8)

方法

  1. 先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸中毒,高于 7.45 为碱中毒。
  2. 找出能解释它的指标:PaCO₂ 与 pH 反向变化为呼吸性,HCO₃⁻ 与 pH 同向变化为代谢性。
  3. 再看另一个指标:正常表示未代偿,沿代偿方向异常表示部分代偿,pH 正常而两项指标都异常表示完全代偿。
  4. 对于代谢性酸中毒,用温特公式 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 与 PaCO₂ 比较,并计算阴离子间隙 Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻)。
  5. 阴离子间隙升高时,用 Δ 比值检查;白蛋白偏低时,再用校正后的间隙检查。

心电图节律条带解读

纸速(25 mm/s,10 mm/mV)
1 个小格 = 0.04 s, 1 个大格 = 0.20 s, 10 mm = 1 mV
心率,节律规则
300 ÷ 大格数 = 1500 ÷ 小格数 = 60 ÷ RR (s)
心率,节律不规则
6 s 内的 QRS 波群数 × 10
正常 PR 间期
0.12–0.20 s
正常 QRS 时限
< 0.12 s
QTc(Bazett)
QT/√RR
QTc(Fridericia)
QT/∛RR
QTc(Framingham)
QT + 154·(1 − RR)
窦性心率
心动过缓 < 60, 正常 60–100, 心动过速 > 100 次/分
逸搏心率
交界性 40–60, 室性 20–40 次/分
快速性心律
SVT 150–250 /min(窄), VT > 100 /min(宽)

方法

  1. 心率:节律规则时,用 300 除以两个 R 波之间的大格数,或用 1500 除以小格数;节律不规则时,数 6 秒内的 QRS 波群数并乘以 10。
  2. 节律:比较 R–R 间期。相等为规则;有重复规律为规律性不规则;完全没有规律为绝对不规则。
  3. P 波:II 导联中每个 QRS 之前是否都有直立的 P 波,且形态一致?注意寻找颤动波或锯齿状波、倒置的 P 波以及后面没有 QRS 的 P 波。
  4. PR 间期:从 P 波起点到 QRS 起点,正常为 0.12–0.20 s 且恒定。注意它是逐渐延长、在脱漏搏动之前保持固定,还是随机变化。
  5. QRS 时限:低于 0.12 s 为窄;0.12 s 或以上为宽。然后命名节律,QT 用 QTc = QT/√RR(Bazett),时间以秒计。

优先排序与委派

方法

  1. 问自己:如果什么都不做,什么会最快伤害患者。
  2. 应用 ABC(心脏骤停时为 C-A-B),然后是 Maslow 需求层次:生理需要先于安全,安全先于心理需要。
  3. 比较各选项:急性先于慢性,不稳定先于稳定,意外先于预期,全身性先于局部,并将每项发现与患者的基线对照。
  4. 除非是紧急情况,否则先评估再行动;然后选择其他步骤所依赖的那一步。
  5. 委派时核对五项正确:任务、情境、人员、指示和监督。评估、宣教和评价仍由注册护士负责。

2练习题

1.内外科护理:心血管与呼吸中等

During airway suctioning, when should suction be applied?

  1. AOnly while withdrawing the catheter
  2. BContinuously for at least 30 seconds
  3. COnly while inserting the catheter
  4. DBefore the catheter enters the airway
2.内外科护理:心血管与呼吸困难

A patient with pneumonia has a temperature of 39 °C, pain and a sinus tachycardia of 122/min. BP is normal. What is the best way to manage the heart rate?

  1. ATreat the fever, pain and possible dehydration, then reassess
  2. BGive a beta-blocker to bring the heart rate below 100/min
  3. CArrange urgent electrical cardioversion to restore a normal rate
  4. DGive IV adenosine
3.内外科护理:神经、内分泌与肾脏中等

A patient has just started haemodialysis. What usually happens to their protein needs?

  1. AProtein must be replaced only by IV infusion
  2. BThey increase, because dialysis removes amino acids
  3. CThey stay exactly the same as they were before dialysis
  4. DThey fall to almost zero to rest the kidneys
4.内外科护理:神经、内分泌与肾脏困难

A patient with CKD has a potassium of 6.5 mmol/L. Which medicine combination is the most likely contributor?

  1. ARamipril, spironolactone and trimethoprim
  2. BFurosemide, salbutamol and insulin
  3. CAmlodipine, simvastatin and aspirin
  4. DParacetamol (acetaminophen), omeprazole and senna
5.内外科护理:消化、围手术期与肿瘤中等

In the UK National Early Warning Score (NEWS2), what does an aggregate score of 5 or more usually trigger?

  1. ANo change unless the patient complains
  2. BRoutine observations once every 12 hours, with no other change in care
  3. CAn urgent review by a clinician skilled in acute illness
  4. DDischarge planning for the next day
6.内外科护理:消化、围手术期与肿瘤困难

A patient with recurrent diverticulitis reports passing air and faecal matter in the urine. What is the most likely cause?

  1. ABowel preparation that was taken too quickly
  2. BA fistula between the colon and the bladder
  3. CA simple lower urinary tract infection
  4. DA kidney stone blocking the ureter
7.临床护理中等

What should a patient be told before using sublingual glyceryl trinitrate (GTN, nitroglycerin) spray for angina?

  1. ASwallow the spray rather than leaving it under the tongue
  2. BTake it with a large glass of milk to protect the stomach lining
  3. CUse it only after the pain has lasted over an hour, with the patient lying flat
  4. DSit down before using it, as it can cause dizziness and low blood pressure
8.临床护理困难

A patient with several days of vomiting and diarrhoea has low blood pressure, low urine output and a rising creatinine. Which description fits best?

  1. AChronic kidney disease, treated with long-term dialysis three times a week
  2. BPost-renal acute kidney injury from obstruction, treated with a catheter
  3. CIntrinsic kidney injury from glomerulonephritis, treated with high-dose steroids
  4. DPre-renal acute kidney injury from poor perfusion, treated by restoring fluid volume
9.实验室检查值与电解质中等

A patient with a low clinical probability of deep vein thrombosis has a normal (negative) D-dimer. What is the best interpretation?

  1. AThe test is useless and should always be ignored
  2. BA DVT is unlikely and can usually be ruled out
  3. CA pulmonary embolism is now certain to be present
  4. DA DVT is confirmed and anticoagulation is needed
10.实验室检查值与电解质困难

A patient has fever, confusion, a platelet count of 15 × 10³/µL, anemia with fragmented red cells (schistocytes) and a raised creatinine. Clotting times are normal. Which condition should be suspected?

  1. AThrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP)
  2. BVitamin K deficiency with bleeding
  3. CImmune thrombocytopenia (ITP)
  4. DDisseminated intravascular coagulation
11.动脉血气分析解读中等
pH7.357.457.64PaCO₂mmHg354523HCO₃⁻mmol/L222624未代偿部分代偿完全代偿

某练习动脉血气显示 pH 7.64,PaCO₂ 23 mmHg (3.1 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 24 mmol/L。原发性紊乱是呼吸性碱中毒。代偿到什么程度?点选你的答案。

pH 7.64PaCO₂ 23 mmHg (3.1 kPa)HCO₃⁻ 24 mmol/L
  1. 1未代偿
  2. 2部分代偿
  3. 3完全代偿
12.动脉血气分析解读困难

在海平面,某练习血气取自吸入 21% 氧气时,显示 PaO₂ 83 mmHg (11.1 kPa),PaCO₂ 34 mmHg (4.5 kPa)。用 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 求A–a 梯度。

FiO₂ 21%PaO₂ 83 mmHg (11.1 kPa)PaCO₂ 34 mmHg (4.5 kPa)
A–a 梯度 = mmHg
13.心电图节律条带解读中等
II25 mm/s · 10 mm/mV

在这条规则的 II 导联心电图上测量 QT 间期和 R–R 间期,然后用 Bazett 公式 QTc = QT/√RR(均以秒计)计算经心率校正的QTc。答案以秒表示,保留三位小数。

II 导联,25 mm/s,10 mm/mV1 个小格 = 0.04 s,1 个大格 = 0.20 s条带长度 6 s
QTc = s
14.心电图节律条带解读困难
II25 mm/s · 10 mm/mV一度房室传导阻滞二度 I 型房室传导阻滞(文氏现象)二度 II 型房室传导阻滞三度(完全性)房室传导阻滞

这条 II 导联心电图显示心房与心室之间存在传导问题。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。

II 导联,25 mm/s,10 mm/mV1 个小格 = 0.04 s,1 个大格 = 0.20 s条带长度 6 s
  1. 1一度房室传导阻滞
  2. 2二度 I 型房室传导阻滞(文氏现象)
  3. 3二度 II 型房室传导阻滞
  4. 4三度(完全性)房室传导阻滞
15.优先排序与委派中等

A nurse teaches a patient to use an incentive spirometer. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?

  1. A“I will blow into it as hard and fast as I can.”
  2. B“I will breathe in slowly and deeply through the mouthpiece.”
  3. C“I will use it several times every hour while awake.”
  4. D“I will try to hold my breath for a few seconds at the top.”
16.优先排序与委派困难

一名患肺炎的老年患者新出现意识模糊。首先采取哪项行动?

  1. A检查血氧饱和度和其他生命体征
  2. B询问家属这对患者来说是否正常
  3. C给予处方的按需镇静药
  4. D用腕部约束带阻止患者拉扯静脉输液管

3溶液

1.内外科护理:心血管与呼吸

答案: A · Only while withdrawing the catheter

为什么是这个答案

The catheter is inserted without suction and suction is applied as it is withdrawn, with each pass kept short. This limits mucosal trauma and hypoxaemia. The patient is monitored for desaturation and bradycardia.

答案

A · Only while withdrawing the catheter
2.内外科护理:心血管与呼吸

答案: A · Treat the fever, pain and possible dehydration, then reassess

为什么是这个答案

Sinus tachycardia is usually a physiological response to fever, pain, hypovolaemia, anxiety, hypoxia or sepsis. Treating the cause (antipyretics, analgesia, fluids, oxygen if needed) is appropriate, while watching for sepsis. Rate-slowing drugs can be harmful by masking compensation.

答案

A · Treat the fever, pain and possible dehydration, then reassess
3.内外科护理:神经、内分泌与肾脏

答案: B · They increase, because dialysis removes amino acids

为什么是这个答案

Before dialysis, a moderate protein intake may be advised. Dialysis removes amino acids and protein, so needs rise, and malnutrition is a common risk. A renal dietitian sets individual targets.

答案

B · They increase, because dialysis removes amino acids
4.内外科护理:神经、内分泌与肾脏

答案: A · Ramipril, spironolactone and trimethoprim

为什么是这个答案

ACE inhibitors and spironolactone reduce aldosterone effect, and trimethoprim blocks potassium secretion in the distal tubule. Together, in CKD, they can cause dangerous hyperkalaemia. Loop diuretics, salbutamol and insulin lower potassium.

答案

A · Ramipril, spironolactone and trimethoprim
5.内外科护理:消化、围手术期与肿瘤

答案: C · An urgent review by a clinician skilled in acute illness

为什么是这个答案

NEWS2 scores respiratory rate, SpO₂, oxygen use, BP, pulse, consciousness or new confusion, and temperature. A score of 5–6 needs an urgent response, and 7 or more an emergency response.

答案

C · An urgent review by a clinician skilled in acute illness
6.内外科护理:消化、围手术期与肿瘤

答案: B · A fistula between the colon and the bladder

为什么是这个答案

Pneumaturia and faecaluria suggest a colovesical fistula, a recognised complication of diverticulitis (and Crohn's disease or cancer). Recurrent urinary infections are common, and surgery is usually needed.

答案

B · A fistula between the colon and the bladder
7.临床护理

答案: D · Sit down before using it, as it can cause dizziness and low blood pressure

为什么是这个答案

GTN causes vasodilation, which can lead to headache, flushing, dizziness and hypotension. Patients should sit, and seek emergency help if the pain does not settle after the advised doses.

答案

D · Sit down before using it, as it can cause dizziness and low blood pressure
8.临床护理

答案: D · Pre-renal acute kidney injury from poor perfusion, treated by restoring fluid volume

为什么是这个答案

Fluid loss reduces kidney perfusion, causing pre-renal AKI. Prompt fluid replacement can restore function before the kidney tissue itself is damaged.

答案

D · Pre-renal acute kidney injury from poor perfusion, treated by restoring fluid volume
9.实验室检查值与电解质

答案: B · A DVT is unlikely and can usually be ruled out

为什么是这个答案

D-dimer is very sensitive, so a negative result in a patient with low clinical probability makes DVT or PE unlikely. A positive result is not specific, because surgery, infection, pregnancy and cancer also raise D-dimer; imaging is then needed.核对依据: D-Dimer Test · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2024)

答案

B · A DVT is unlikely and can usually be ruled out
10.实验室检查值与电解质

答案: A · Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP)

为什么是这个答案

TTP causes small clots that consume platelets, break red cells (microangiopathic hemolysis) and damage the brain and kidneys, while clotting times usually stay normal. It is an emergency treated with plasma exchange; platelet transfusion is generally avoided.核对依据: Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)

答案

A · Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP)
11.动脉血气分析解读

答案: 未代偿

解读血气(ROME):先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸血症,高于 7.45 为碱血症。然后找出能解释它的指标。PaCO₂(正常 35–45 mmHg,4.7–6.0 kPa)是呼吸方面的指标,在呼吸性紊乱中与 pH 反向(Opposite)变化;HCO₃⁻(正常 22–26 mmol/L)是代谢方面的指标,与 pH 同向变化(Respiratory Opposite, Metabolic Equal,即呼吸性相反,代谢性相同)。另一个指标显示代偿情况:正常表示未代偿;沿着使 pH 回升的方向异常、而 pH 仍然异常,表示部分代偿;pH 正常而两个指标都异常,表示完全代偿。各实验室的范围略有差异;这些是练习用数值。

逐个指标运用 ROME

pH 7.64: 碱血症(高于 7.45)
PaCO₂ 23 mmHg: 低 (35–45)
HCO₃⁻ 24 mmol/L: 正常值 (22–26)

代偿

未代偿

答案

未代偿
12.动脉血气分析解读

答案: A–a 梯度 = 24.23 mmHg

衍生数值:计算所得的血清渗透压为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖 + 尿素,各值均以 mmol/L 计(葡萄糖和 BUN 以 mg/dL 计时为 2·Na⁺ + 葡萄糖/18 + BUN/2.8);正常约为 275–295 mOsm/kg。P/F 比值是 PaO₂ 除以以小数表示的 FiO₂。海平面的肺泡氧分压为 PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8 mmHg,A–a 梯度为 PAO₂ − PaO₂。

肺泡氧

PAO₂ = 0.21·713 − 34/0.8 = 149.7 − 42.5 = 107.2 mmHg

梯度

A–a = 107.2 − 83 = 24.23 mmHg

答案

A–a 梯度 = 24.23 mmHg
13.心电图节律条带解读

答案: QTc = 0.39 s

QT 与 QTc:QT 间期从 QRS 波群起点到 T 波终点。它随心率加快而缩短,因此要用以秒为单位的 R–R 间期按心率校正:Bazett QTc = QT/√RR,Fridericia QTc = QT/∛RR。多数教科书使用 Bazett 公式;它在心率快时校正过度,此时宜用 Fridericia。各参考标准的界限不同:QTc 男性高于约 0.45 s、女性高于约 0.46 s 通常称为延长,高于 0.50 s 称为明显延长。

测量

QT = 8.5 × 0.04 = 0.34 s
RR = 19 × 0.04 = 0.76 s

Bazett 公式

QTc = 0.34/√0.76 = 0.34/0.8718 = 0.39 s

答案

QTc = 0.39 s

在通常上限之内(男性约 0.45 s,女性约 0.46 s)。(390 ms)

14.心电图节律条带解读

答案: 二度 I 型房室传导阻滞(文氏现象)

房室传导阻滞:逐个标出 P 波,检查哪些 P 波后面跟着 QRS。一度:每个 P 波都下传,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。二度 I 型(Mobitz I,文氏现象):PR 逐搏延长,直到一个 P 波未下传,然后周期重新开始(成组搏动)。二度 II 型(Mobitz II):下传搏动的 PR 保持恒定,P 波突然不下传;QRS 常增宽。三度(完全性)阻滞:P 波和 QRS 波群各自规则但互相独立,PR 随机变化,心房率快于逸搏率(交界性逸搏 40–60 次/分,QRS 窄;室性逸搏 20–40 次/分,QRS 宽)。2:1 阻滞仅凭一份条带无法判断是 I 型还是 II 型。

五个步骤

1. 心率:6 秒内有 5 个 QRS 波群,× 10 = 50 次/分。
2. 节律:规律性不规则,QRS 波群成组出现,组间有暂停(成组搏动)。
3. P 波:直立且规则(P–P 0.88 s,68 次/分);每 4 个 P 波中有一个后面没有 QRS。
4. PR 间期:逐渐延长 0.18 → 0.32 → 0.38 s,随后一个 P 波未下传。
5. QRS:0.10 s,狭窄(低于 0.12 s)。

解读

二度 I 型房室传导阻滞(文氏现象)

答案

二度 I 型房室传导阻滞(文氏现象)
15.优先排序与委派

答案: A · “I will blow into it as hard and fast as I can.”

为什么是这个答案

An incentive spirometer is used by breathing in slowly and deeply, then holding the breath briefly. Blowing into it does not expand the lungs.

答案

A · “I will blow into it as hard and fast as I can.”
16.优先排序与委派

答案: A · 检查血氧饱和度和其他生命体征

为什么是这个答案

新出现的意识模糊可能由缺氧、脓毒症或低血糖引起。首先评估氧合和生命体征。约束和镇静药处理的是行为而不是病因,并可能使谵妄恶化。

答案

A · 检查血氧饱和度和其他生命体征

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