内外科护理:心血管与呼吸
方法
- 说出问题所在:泵衰竭、动脉阻塞、节律、血栓、气道狭窄、感染或设备问题。
- 先检查危险征象:低氧、低血压、胸痛、新出现的意识模糊、冰冷无脉搏的肢体。
- 让氧疗与患者相匹配:大多数人为 94–98%,有 CO₂ 潴留风险者为 88–92%。
- 把每种药物与其检测和风险联系起来:华法林与 INR,肝素与 aPTT 和血小板,利尿剂与血钾。
- 选择安全的第一步措施,然后升级处理并重新评估。
公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 16 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。
Analysis of a pleural effusion shows it is an exudate (high protein and LDH compared with blood). Which cause is most likely?
一名因心房颤动服用华法林的患者 INR 为 8.5,但没有出血。最可能的处理是什么?
头部受伤后,一名患者鼻子里滴出清亮液体。主要的担忧是什么?
A patient on insulin has worsening chronic kidney disease and is having more hypos. What is the best explanation?
Why are many patients screened for MRSA before planned surgery?
During radiotherapy to the chest, a patient develops pain on swallowing and is eating less. What is the most likely cause and nursing focus?
Which of these is one of the "4 Hs", the reversible causes of cardiac arrest?
A patient with a possible neck injury after a fall needs their airway opened. Which manoeuvre is preferred?
Why must vitamin B12 deficiency be ruled out before treating macrocytic anemia with folic acid alone?
A patient with a round face, central weight gain and purple stretch marks has a glucose of 210 mg/dL (11.7 mmol/L) and a potassium of 3.1 mEq/L. Which condition fits best?
某练习血气显示代谢性酸中毒,HCO₃⁻ 8 mmol/L。用温特公式求预期PaCO₂(范围的中心),单位 mmHg。
练习数值:Na⁺ 138,Cl⁻ 108,HCO₃⁻ 11 mmol/L,白蛋白 32 g/L。求经白蛋白校正的阴离子间隙 AGc = AG + 0.25·(40 − 白蛋白)。
这条 II 导联心电图条带显示窦性心律伴一次停顿。测量 停顿,即跨越停顿的 R–R 间期,单位为秒。
这条 II 导联心电图显示房室传导阻滞,心室节律不规则。使用 6 秒法求出心室率(单位:次/分)。
A patient is raising his voice, pacing and clenching his fists. What should the nurse do first?
在 START 分诊中,一名不能行走的成人每分钟呼吸 28 次,没有桡动脉搏动,毛细血管再充盈时间 4 秒。该伤员被归入哪一类?
答案: A · Pneumonia or cancer affecting the pleura
Transudates form when hydrostatic or oncotic pressure changes push fluid out of vessels, as in heart failure, cirrhosis and nephrotic syndrome. Exudates form when inflammation or tumour makes the pleura leaky, so protein and LDH are high (Light's criteria). Common causes are pneumonia, cancer, TB and pulmonary embolism.
答案: B · 暂停华法林,通知开处方者,并尽快复查 INR
没有出血的极高 INR,通常的处理是暂停华法林、通知开处方者并复查 INR。根据 INR 和当地方案,也可能开具小剂量口服维生素 K(英国指南在 INR 高于 8 时给予;美国指南主要在高于 10 或出血风险高时给予)。凝血酶原复合物浓缩剂和静脉维生素 K 用于大出血。鱼精蛋白用于逆转肝素。应查明 INR 升高的原因(新药、疾病、饮食)。
答案: B · 颅骨骨折引起的脑脊液漏
头部受伤后从鼻子或耳朵流出的清亮液体可能是脑脊液,提示颅底骨折。应上报。告知患者不要擤鼻涕,并避免使用鼻管或吸引。脑脊液漏会增加脑膜炎的风险。
答案: A · The kidneys clear less insulin, so it lasts longer
The kidneys clear a large share of insulin. As kidney function falls, insulin stays in the blood longer and some oral agents build up, so hypos increase. Insulin doses often need to be reduced.
答案: A · So that carriers can be decolonised to reduce infection
MRSA carriers have a higher risk of surgical site infection. Screening allows decolonisation with nasal ointment and skin washes, and the right antibiotic prophylaxis.
答案: B · Radiation oesophagitis; analgesia, soft food and nutrition support
Radiotherapy to the chest can inflame the oesophagus, causing painful swallowing. Analgesia (sometimes before meals), soft moist food, nutritional supplements, dietitian input and monitoring weight are important.
答案: B · Hypoxia
The 4 Hs are hypoxia, hypovolaemia, hypo- or hyperkalaemia and other metabolic causes, and hypothermia. The 4 Ts are thrombosis, tension pneumothorax, tamponade and toxins.
答案: A · Jaw thrust
A jaw thrust opens the airway with minimal neck movement. The cervical spine is protected with manual in-line stabilisation, although opening the airway still takes priority if it remains obstructed.
答案: C · Folic acid can fix the anemia while B12-related nerve damage continues
Folic acid can improve the blood picture in B12 deficiency but does not prevent nerve damage. Giving folate alone can therefore mask the deficiency while neurological damage progresses. Both levels are checked before treatment.
答案: C · Cushing syndrome
Excess cortisol raises glucose, causes central obesity, a round face and purple striae, and has some mineralocorticoid effect that lowers potassium. Adrenal insufficiency causes low glucose and high potassium.核对依据: Hypercortisolism (Cushing Syndrome) · StatPearls (NCBI Bookshelf) (2025); Hypokalemia · StatPearls (NCBI Bookshelf) (2025)
答案: PaCO₂ = 20 mmHg
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
答案: AGc = 21 mmol/L
预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。
校正后高于约 12:阴离子间隙升高。
答案: 停顿 = 2.16 s
窄 QRS 心动过速与停顿:室上性心动过速(SVT)是规则的心动过速,约 150–250 次/分钟,QRS 波群较窄;P 波通常看不到,因为它们隐藏在 QRS 波群或 T 波中。成人静息时的窦性心动过速通常低于约 150 次/分钟,且每个 QRS 前都有可见的 P 波;伴 2:1 传导的心房扑动常在约 150 次/分钟,并显示锯齿波。窦性停搏是指窦房结暂时停止发放冲动:出现既无 P 波也无 QRS 的停顿,其长度不是 P–P 周期的整数倍(恰好两个或三个周期的停顿则提示窦房传导阻滞)。
停顿中没有出现 P 波,且停顿不是 P–P 周期的整数倍:窦性停搏。恰好两个或三个周期的停顿则提示窦房传导阻滞。
答案: 心室率 = 50 bpm
房室传导阻滞:逐个标出 P 波,检查哪些 P 波后面跟着 QRS。一度:每个 P 波都下传,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。二度 I 型(Mobitz I,文氏现象):PR 逐搏延长,直到一个 P 波未下传,然后周期重新开始(成组搏动)。二度 II 型(Mobitz II):下传搏动的 PR 保持恒定,P 波突然不下传;QRS 常增宽。三度(完全性)阻滞:P 波和 QRS 波群各自规则但互相独立,PR 随机变化,心房率快于逸搏率(交界性逸搏 40–60 次/分,QRS 窄;室性逸搏 20–40 次/分,QRS 宽)。2:1 阻滞仅凭一份条带无法判断是 I 型还是 II 型。
二度 I 型(文氏现象):每 3 个 QRS 波群对应 4 个 P 波。
答案: A · Speak calmly, keep a safe distance and invite him to talk about what is wrong
Early verbal de-escalation, with a calm voice and a safe distance, is the first approach for rising agitation. Restraint is a last resort, and crowding the patient can make things worse.
答案: A · 红色(立即)
低于 30 次/分的频率通过了呼吸检查,但桡动脉搏动消失或毛细血管再充盈超过 2 秒不能通过灌注检查,因此该伤员是立即(红色)。在呼吸检查后就停止是个陷阱。
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