内外科护理:速成包

公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 16 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。

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1公式与方法

内外科护理:心血管与呼吸

方法

  1. 说出问题所在:泵衰竭、动脉阻塞、节律、血栓、气道狭窄、感染或设备问题。
  2. 先检查危险征象:低氧、低血压、胸痛、新出现的意识模糊、冰冷无脉搏的肢体。
  3. 让氧疗与患者相匹配:大多数人为 94–98%,有 CO₂ 潴留风险者为 88–92%。
  4. 把每种药物与其检测和风险联系起来:华法林与 INR,肝素与 aPTT 和血小板,利尿剂与血钾。
  5. 选择安全的第一步措施,然后升级处理并重新评估。

内外科护理:神经、内分泌与肾脏

方法

  1. 对每位新出现意识模糊、乏力或癫痫发作的患者都检查血糖。
  2. 把意识水平作为脑部问题最早的警示;瞳孔变化和库欣三联征出现得较晚。
  3. 对于糖尿病急症,要区分 DKA(酮体、酸中毒)和 HHS(渗透压很高、脱水);先补液。
  4. 对于钠和水,要判断是 ADH 过多(SIADH)还是缺乏(尿崩症),并缓慢纠正慢性变化。
  5. 对于肾脏问题,把原因分为肾前性、肾性或肾后性,并监测血钾和液体。

内外科护理:消化、围手术期与肿瘤

方法

  1. 想一想可能隐藏着什么:内出血、无发热的感染、SpO₂ 正常背后的通气不足。
  2. 利用术后的时间来缩小并发症的范围:出血在数小时内,胸部问题在数天内,伤口和吻合口漏出现得更晚。
  3. 对于疼痛,要评估、用多模式镇痛治疗、重新评估,并且在每次使用阿片类药物时监测镇静程度。
  4. 对于癌症患者,把低谷期的任何疾病都当作中性粒细胞减少性脓毒症处理,并了解肿瘤急症。
  5. 对于烧伤,只计算浅二度/深二度和三度的面积,从烧伤的时刻开始计算 Parkland 时间,并根据尿量调整。

实验室检查值与电解质

方法

  1. 把数值与本实验室自己的参考范围比较,再与患者的基线和趋势比较。
  2. 检查标本:溶血、延迟,或在静脉输液附近采血都可能得出错误结果。
  3. 把数值与其典型体征以及引起它的药物和疾病联系起来。
  4. 注意相互作用:低钾或低镁会增加地高辛中毒的风险;脱水会使锂浓度升高。
  5. 对患者采取行动:评估,血药浓度不安全时暂停用药,复述危急值并通知开医嘱的医生。

动脉血气分析解读

正常范围
pH 7.35–7.45, PaCO₂ 35–45 mmHg (4.7–6.0 kPa), HCO₃⁻ 22–26 mmol/L
ROME
呼吸性:PaCO₂ 与 pH 相反; 代谢性:HCO₃⁻ 与 pH 同向
温特公式
PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2
代谢性碱中毒
PaCO₂ ≈ 0.7·HCO₃⁻ + 21
阴离子间隙
AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻) ≈ 8–12
白蛋白校正阴离子间隙
AG + 2.5·(4.0 − alb g/dL) = AG + 0.25·(40 − alb g/L)
Δ 比值
(AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻)
P/F 比值
PaO₂/FiO₂
肺泡气方程
PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8
血清渗透压
2·Na⁺ + glucose + urea (2·Na⁺ + glucose/18 + BUN/2.8)

方法

  1. 先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸中毒,高于 7.45 为碱中毒。
  2. 找出能解释它的指标:PaCO₂ 与 pH 反向变化为呼吸性,HCO₃⁻ 与 pH 同向变化为代谢性。
  3. 再看另一个指标:正常表示未代偿,沿代偿方向异常表示部分代偿,pH 正常而两项指标都异常表示完全代偿。
  4. 对于代谢性酸中毒,用温特公式 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 与 PaCO₂ 比较,并计算阴离子间隙 Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻)。
  5. 阴离子间隙升高时,用 Δ 比值检查;白蛋白偏低时,再用校正后的间隙检查。

心电图节律条带解读

纸速(25 mm/s,10 mm/mV)
1 个小格 = 0.04 s, 1 个大格 = 0.20 s, 10 mm = 1 mV
心率,节律规则
300 ÷ 大格数 = 1500 ÷ 小格数 = 60 ÷ RR (s)
心率,节律不规则
6 s 内的 QRS 波群数 × 10
正常 PR 间期
0.12–0.20 s
正常 QRS 时限
< 0.12 s
QTc(Bazett)
QT/√RR
QTc(Fridericia)
QT/∛RR
QTc(Framingham)
QT + 154·(1 − RR)
窦性心率
心动过缓 < 60, 正常 60–100, 心动过速 > 100 次/分
逸搏心率
交界性 40–60, 室性 20–40 次/分
快速性心律
SVT 150–250 /min(窄), VT > 100 /min(宽)

方法

  1. 心率:节律规则时,用 300 除以两个 R 波之间的大格数,或用 1500 除以小格数;节律不规则时,数 6 秒内的 QRS 波群数并乘以 10。
  2. 节律:比较 R–R 间期。相等为规则;有重复规律为规律性不规则;完全没有规律为绝对不规则。
  3. P 波:II 导联中每个 QRS 之前是否都有直立的 P 波,且形态一致?注意寻找颤动波或锯齿状波、倒置的 P 波以及后面没有 QRS 的 P 波。
  4. PR 间期:从 P 波起点到 QRS 起点,正常为 0.12–0.20 s 且恒定。注意它是逐渐延长、在脱漏搏动之前保持固定,还是随机变化。
  5. QRS 时限:低于 0.12 s 为窄;0.12 s 或以上为宽。然后命名节律,QT 用 QTc = QT/√RR(Bazett),时间以秒计。

优先排序与委派

方法

  1. 问自己:如果什么都不做,什么会最快伤害患者。
  2. 应用 ABC(心脏骤停时为 C-A-B),然后是 Maslow 需求层次:生理需要先于安全,安全先于心理需要。
  3. 比较各选项:急性先于慢性,不稳定先于稳定,意外先于预期,全身性先于局部,并将每项发现与患者的基线对照。
  4. 除非是紧急情况,否则先评估再行动;然后选择其他步骤所依赖的那一步。
  5. 委派时核对五项正确:任务、情境、人员、指示和监督。评估、宣教和评价仍由注册护士负责。

2练习题

1.内外科护理:心血管与呼吸中等

A patient choosing between a mechanical and a biological heart valve asks about the main difference. Which answer is accurate?

  1. AMechanical valves wear out within one year
  2. BMechanical valves last longer but need lifelong anticoagulation
  3. CBoth types need no medicines after surgery
  4. DBiological valves last longer but need lifelong warfarin
2.内外科护理:心血管与呼吸困难

A nurse has four cardiac patients. Which one should be seen first?

  1. AA patient after a radial angiogram asking when they can eat
  2. BA patient with AF and a heart rate of 86/min who is due an apixaban dose this morning
  3. CA patient with heart failure whose weight is 0.3 kg up on yesterday's morning weight
  4. DA patient with angina whose chest pain has not eased with rest and who is sweating
3.内外科护理:神经、内分泌与肾脏中等

A patient has just started haemodialysis. What usually happens to their protein needs?

  1. AThey increase, because dialysis removes amino acids
  2. BThey stay exactly the same as they were before dialysis
  3. CProtein must be replaced only by IV infusion
  4. DThey fall to almost zero to rest the kidneys
4.内外科护理:神经、内分泌与肾脏困难

The nurse has four patients with diabetes. Which one needs to be seen first?

  1. AA patient with a glucose of 14 mmol/L (252 mg/dL) who feels well and is eating
  2. BA patient waiting for a routine HbA1c test
  3. CA patient with a glucose of 2.8 mmol/L (50 mg/dL) who is sweaty and confused
  4. DA newly diagnosed patient asking about which foods to eat
5.内外科护理:消化、围手术期与肿瘤中等

A patient takes co-codamol at home (a combination tablet sold under different names in different countries). Why should the nurse check this before giving regular paracetamol (acetaminophen)?

  1. ACo-codamol must be stopped a week before any paracetamol
  2. BCo-codamol stops paracetamol from working
  3. CIt already contains paracetamol, so overdose could occur
  4. DParacetamol and codeine cause a severe allergic reaction when combined
6.内外科护理:消化、围手术期与肿瘤困难

A nurse teaches a patient after a colonoscopy with polyp removal. Which statement shows a need for further teaching?

  1. A"Some wind and bloating today is expected."
  2. B"Severe abdominal pain is normal for a week afterwards."
  3. C"I should report a fever or a swollen, painful abdomen."
  4. D"I'll report heavy bleeding from my bottom."
7.临床护理中等

一名患者有绞痛样腹痛、腹胀、呕吐,两天未排便排气。可能的问题是什么?

  1. A肠易激综合征
  2. B胃肠炎
  3. C无并发症的阑尾炎
  4. D肠梗阻
8.临床护理困难

After a high spinal cord injury, a patient has low blood pressure with a slow heart rate and warm, dry skin. What is most likely?

  1. ASeptic shock
  2. BHypovolaemic shock
  3. CCardiac tamponade
  4. DNeurogenic shock
9.实验室检查值与电解质中等

When do the blood counts usually reach their lowest point (nadir) after many standard chemotherapy regimens?

  1. AAbout 7–14 days after treatment
  2. BAbout 6 months after treatment
  3. COn the same day as treatment
  4. DWithin 1–2 hours of treatment
10.实验室检查值与电解质困难

Ten days after chemotherapy, a patient has a platelet count of 9 × 10³/µL and reports a sudden severe headache and blurred vision. What is the priority?

  1. AGive acetaminophen (paracetamol) for the headache and reassess in 1 hour
  2. BAssess neurological status and report it at once as possible brain bleeding
  3. CEncourage the patient to drink more fluids and check the blood pressure later
  4. DDim the lights and encourage rest, as headaches are common after chemotherapy
11.动脉血气分析解读中等
pH7.357.457.32PaCO₂mmHg354538HCO₃⁻mmol/L222619未代偿部分代偿完全代偿

某练习动脉血气显示 pH 7.32,PaCO₂ 38 mmHg (5.1 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 19 mmol/L。原发性紊乱是代谢性酸中毒。代偿到什么程度?点选你的答案。

pH 7.32PaCO₂ 38 mmHg (5.1 kPa)HCO₃⁻ 19 mmol/L
  1. 1未代偿
  2. 2部分代偿
  3. 3完全代偿
12.动脉血气分析解读困难
pH7.357.457.19PaCO₂mmHg354574HCO₃⁻mmol/L222627急性慢性慢性基础上的急性

某练习血气显示呼吸性酸中毒:pH 7.19,PaCO₂ 74 mmHg (9.9 kPa),HCO₃⁻ 27 mmol/L。利用规则“HCO₃⁻ 每 10 mmHg 升高 1 mmol/L(急性)或 3.5 mmol/L(慢性)”进行分类。点选你的答案。

pH 7.19PaCO₂ 74 mmHg (9.9 kPa)HCO₃⁻ 27 mmol/L
  1. 1急性
  2. 2慢性
  3. 3慢性基础上的急性
13.心电图节律条带解读中等
II25 mm/s · 10 mm/mV

这条 II 导联心电图显示心房扑动。测量扑动波间期,求出心房率(单位:次/分)。

II 导联,25 mm/s,10 mm/mV1 个小格 = 0.04 s,1 个大格 = 0.20 s条带长度 6 s
心房率 = bpm
14.心电图节律条带解读困难
II25 mm/s · 10 mm/mV室性自搏心律三度(完全性)房室传导阻滞起搏心律,夺获失败心室起搏心律

这位患者装有起搏器。请解读这条 II 导联心电图条带。点击你的答案。

II 导联,25 mm/s,10 mm/mV1 个小格 = 0.04 s,1 个大格 = 0.20 s条带长度 6 s
  1. 1室性自搏心律
  2. 2三度(完全性)房室传导阻滞
  3. 3起搏心律,夺获失败
  4. 4心室起搏心律
15.优先排序与委派中等

A patient with diabetes is unresponsive and has a blood glucose of 40 mg/dL (2.2 mmol/L). What should the nurse do first?

  1. AWait 15 minutes and recheck the glucose
  2. BGive the scheduled dose of insulin
  3. CPour orange juice into the patient’s mouth
  4. DGive IV dextrose or glucagon as prescribed
16.优先排序与委派困难

Using ESI, a stable adult with abdominal pain will need blood tests and a CT scan, but has a heart rate of 130/min. Which statement is correct?

  1. AThe nurse should consider level 2 because of the danger-zone vital sign
  2. BThe patient is level 5 because the pain is not severe
  3. CThe patient is level 4 because the blood tests and the scan count as one resource
  4. DVital signs never change the ESI level

3溶液

1.内外科护理:心血管与呼吸

答案: B · Mechanical valves last longer but need lifelong anticoagulation

为什么是这个答案

Mechanical valves are very durable but are thrombogenic, so lifelong warfarin is needed. Biological (tissue) valves usually do not need long-term anticoagulation but wear out over time and may need replacement. Age, lifestyle and bleeding risk guide the choice.

答案

B · Mechanical valves last longer but need lifelong anticoagulation
2.内外科护理:心血管与呼吸

答案: D · A patient with angina whose chest pain has not eased with rest and who is sweating

为什么是这个答案

Chest pain that does not settle with rest, especially with sweating, suggests an acute coronary syndrome and needs immediate assessment and a 12-lead ECG. A controlled heart rate in AF, a very small weight change and a question about eating are not urgent.

答案

D · A patient with angina whose chest pain has not eased with rest and who is sweating
3.内外科护理:神经、内分泌与肾脏

答案: A · They increase, because dialysis removes amino acids

为什么是这个答案

Before dialysis, a moderate protein intake may be advised. Dialysis removes amino acids and protein, so needs rise, and malnutrition is a common risk. A renal dietitian sets individual targets.

答案

A · They increase, because dialysis removes amino acids
4.内外科护理:神经、内分泌与肾脏

答案: C · A patient with a glucose of 2.8 mmol/L (50 mg/dL) who is sweaty and confused

为什么是这个答案

Hypoglycaemia with confusion can rapidly lead to seizures and loss of consciousness, so it is treated at once. A moderately high glucose without symptoms, diet questions and routine tests can wait.

答案

C · A patient with a glucose of 2.8 mmol/L (50 mg/dL) who is sweaty and confused
5.内外科护理:消化、围手术期与肿瘤

答案: C · It already contains paracetamol, so overdose could occur

为什么是这个答案

Co-codamol combines codeine and paracetamol. Giving extra paracetamol can exceed the maximum daily dose and cause liver damage, so all sources of paracetamol are counted.

答案

C · It already contains paracetamol, so overdose could occur
6.内外科护理:消化、围手术期与肿瘤

答案: B · "Severe abdominal pain is normal for a week afterwards."

为什么是这个答案

Mild bloating and cramps from the air used are expected. Severe or worsening pain, fever, a distended abdomen or heavy rectal bleeding can mean perforation or haemorrhage and must be reported straight away.

答案

B · "Severe abdominal pain is normal for a week afterwards."
7.临床护理

答案: D · 肠梗阻

为什么是这个答案

肠梗阻引起腹胀、绞痛、呕吐和停止排便排气。患者通常需禁食,并留置鼻胃管进行胃减压。

答案

D · 肠梗阻
8.临床护理

答案: D · Neurogenic shock

为什么是这个答案

Neurogenic shock from cervical or high thoracic injury causes vasodilation and bradycardia because sympathetic outflow is lost. Hypovolaemic shock usually causes tachycardia and cool, pale skin.

答案

D · Neurogenic shock
9.实验室检查值与电解质

答案: A · About 7–14 days after treatment

为什么是这个答案

Chemotherapy damages dividing marrow cells, but mature neutrophils and platelets already in the blood survive for a while, so counts usually fall to a nadir about 7–14 days later, depending on the drug. Infection and bleeding risks are highest then.

答案

A · About 7–14 days after treatment
10.实验室检查值与电解质

答案: B · Assess neurological status and report it at once as possible brain bleeding

为什么是这个答案

Platelet counts usually reach their lowest point (nadir) about 7–14 days after chemotherapy. With a count below 10 × 10³/µL, a sudden severe headache or visual change may signal intracranial bleeding, which is an emergency. The nurse assesses neurological status and reports it immediately.核对依据: Bleeding and Bruising (Thrombocytopenia) and Cancer Treatment · National Cancer Institute (NIH) (2022); Pancytopenia · StatPearls (NCBI Bookshelf) (2023)

答案

B · Assess neurological status and report it at once as possible brain bleeding
11.动脉血气分析解读

答案: 未代偿

解读血气(ROME):先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸血症,高于 7.45 为碱血症。然后找出能解释它的指标。PaCO₂(正常 35–45 mmHg,4.7–6.0 kPa)是呼吸方面的指标,在呼吸性紊乱中与 pH 反向(Opposite)变化;HCO₃⁻(正常 22–26 mmol/L)是代谢方面的指标,与 pH 同向变化(Respiratory Opposite, Metabolic Equal,即呼吸性相反,代谢性相同)。另一个指标显示代偿情况:正常表示未代偿;沿着使 pH 回升的方向异常、而 pH 仍然异常,表示部分代偿;pH 正常而两个指标都异常,表示完全代偿。各实验室的范围略有差异;这些是练习用数值。

逐个指标运用 ROME

pH 7.32: 酸血症(低于 7.35)
PaCO₂ 38 mmHg: 正常值 (35–45)
HCO₃⁻ 19 mmol/L: 低 (22–26)

代偿

未代偿

答案

未代偿
12.动脉血气分析解读

答案: 急性

预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。

HCO₃⁻ 的预期值

急性: 24 + 1·3.4 = 27.4 mmol/L
慢性: 24 + 3.5·3.4 = 35.9 mmol/L

比较

实测: 27 mmol/L → 急性

答案

急性
13.心电图节律条带解读

答案: 心房率 = 300 bpm

节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。

扑动波

F–F = 5 个小格 = 0.20 s → 1500 ÷ 5 = 300 次/分

QRS 波群

R–R = 20 个小格 = 0.80 s → 1500 ÷ 20 = 75 次/分
传导比例 = 300 ÷ 75 = 4:1

答案

心房率 = 300 bpm
14.心电图节律条带解读

答案: 心室起搏心律

起搏心律:起搏器脉冲表现为一条细而垂直的起搏钉样信号。心室钉样信号之后的 QRS 是增宽的(0.12 s 或以上),因为冲动是从导线经心肌传播,而不是经传导系统;右心室起搏时,在 II 导联上通常以负向为主。P 波之前的钉样信号表示心房起搏;双腔(房室)起搏器则表现为心房钉样信号加 P 波,再经过程控的房室延迟,出现心室钉样信号和增宽的 QRS。夺获是指每个钉样信号之后都跟着一次除极。夺获失败是指钉样信号之后没有 P 波或 QRS;感知不良(钉样信号无视患者自己的心搏)和起搏不良(该出现钉样信号时没有)是另外两种典型的故障。

五个步骤

1. 心率:R–R = 21 个小格,1500 ÷ 21 ≈ 71 次/分。
2. 节律:规则,每个 R–R 均为 0.84 s。
3. P 波:看不到;每个 QRS 之前都有一个尖锐的起搏钉样信号。
4. PR 间期:无法测量。
5. QRS:0.14 s,增宽,每个起搏钉样信号之后都跟着一个 QRS(夺获)。

解读

心室起搏心律

答案

心室起搏心律

起搏产生的 QRS 本来就是增宽的;不要称它为束支传导阻滞或室性心律。

15.优先排序与委派

答案: D · Give IV dextrose or glucagon as prescribed

为什么是这个答案

An unconscious patient must not be given anything by mouth because of aspiration risk. IV dextrose or glucagon raises the glucose quickly.

答案

D · Give IV dextrose or glucagon as prescribed
16.优先排序与委派

答案: A · The nurse should consider level 2 because of the danger-zone vital sign

为什么是这个答案

In ESI, a patient who needs two or more resources is level 3, but danger-zone vital signs such as a very fast heart rate should make the nurse consider level 2.

答案

A · The nurse should consider level 2 because of the danger-zone vital sign

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