内外科护理:速成包

公式表、每个专题的关键方法步骤和 16 道练习题,完整解答附在最后。

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1公式与方法

内外科护理:心血管与呼吸

方法

  1. 说出问题所在:泵衰竭、动脉阻塞、节律、血栓、气道狭窄、感染或设备问题。
  2. 先检查危险征象:低氧、低血压、胸痛、新出现的意识模糊、冰冷无脉搏的肢体。
  3. 让氧疗与患者相匹配:大多数人为 94–98%,有 CO₂ 潴留风险者为 88–92%。
  4. 把每种药物与其检测和风险联系起来:华法林与 INR,肝素与 aPTT 和血小板,利尿剂与血钾。
  5. 选择安全的第一步措施,然后升级处理并重新评估。

内外科护理:神经、内分泌与肾脏

方法

  1. 对每位新出现意识模糊、乏力或癫痫发作的患者都检查血糖。
  2. 把意识水平作为脑部问题最早的警示;瞳孔变化和库欣三联征出现得较晚。
  3. 对于糖尿病急症,要区分 DKA(酮体、酸中毒)和 HHS(渗透压很高、脱水);先补液。
  4. 对于钠和水,要判断是 ADH 过多(SIADH)还是缺乏(尿崩症),并缓慢纠正慢性变化。
  5. 对于肾脏问题,把原因分为肾前性、肾性或肾后性,并监测血钾和液体。

内外科护理:消化、围手术期与肿瘤

方法

  1. 想一想可能隐藏着什么:内出血、无发热的感染、SpO₂ 正常背后的通气不足。
  2. 利用术后的时间来缩小并发症的范围:出血在数小时内,胸部问题在数天内,伤口和吻合口漏出现得更晚。
  3. 对于疼痛,要评估、用多模式镇痛治疗、重新评估,并且在每次使用阿片类药物时监测镇静程度。
  4. 对于癌症患者,把低谷期的任何疾病都当作中性粒细胞减少性脓毒症处理,并了解肿瘤急症。
  5. 对于烧伤,只计算浅二度/深二度和三度的面积,从烧伤的时刻开始计算 Parkland 时间,并根据尿量调整。

实验室检查值与电解质

方法

  1. 把数值与本实验室自己的参考范围比较,再与患者的基线和趋势比较。
  2. 检查标本:溶血、延迟,或在静脉输液附近采血都可能得出错误结果。
  3. 把数值与其典型体征以及引起它的药物和疾病联系起来。
  4. 注意相互作用:低钾或低镁会增加地高辛中毒的风险;脱水会使锂浓度升高。
  5. 对患者采取行动:评估,血药浓度不安全时暂停用药,复述危急值并通知开医嘱的医生。

动脉血气分析解读

正常范围
pH 7.35–7.45, PaCO₂ 35–45 mmHg (4.7–6.0 kPa), HCO₃⁻ 22–26 mmol/L
ROME
呼吸性:PaCO₂ 与 pH 相反; 代谢性:HCO₃⁻ 与 pH 同向
温特公式
PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2
代谢性碱中毒
PaCO₂ ≈ 0.7·HCO₃⁻ + 21
阴离子间隙
AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻) ≈ 8–12
白蛋白校正阴离子间隙
AG + 2.5·(4.0 − alb g/dL) = AG + 0.25·(40 − alb g/L)
Δ 比值
(AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻)
P/F 比值
PaO₂/FiO₂
肺泡气方程
PAO₂ = FiO₂·(760 − 47) − PaCO₂/0.8
血清渗透压
2·Na⁺ + glucose + urea (2·Na⁺ + glucose/18 + BUN/2.8)

方法

  1. 先看 pH:低于 7.35 为酸中毒,高于 7.45 为碱中毒。
  2. 找出能解释它的指标:PaCO₂ 与 pH 反向变化为呼吸性,HCO₃⁻ 与 pH 同向变化为代谢性。
  3. 再看另一个指标:正常表示未代偿,沿代偿方向异常表示部分代偿,pH 正常而两项指标都异常表示完全代偿。
  4. 对于代谢性酸中毒,用温特公式 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 与 PaCO₂ 比较,并计算阴离子间隙 Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻)。
  5. 阴离子间隙升高时,用 Δ 比值检查;白蛋白偏低时,再用校正后的间隙检查。

心电图节律条带解读

纸速(25 mm/s,10 mm/mV)
1 个小格 = 0.04 s, 1 个大格 = 0.20 s, 10 mm = 1 mV
心率,节律规则
300 ÷ 大格数 = 1500 ÷ 小格数 = 60 ÷ RR (s)
心率,节律不规则
6 s 内的 QRS 波群数 × 10
正常 PR 间期
0.12–0.20 s
正常 QRS 时限
< 0.12 s
QTc(Bazett)
QT/√RR
QTc(Fridericia)
QT/∛RR
QTc(Framingham)
QT + 154·(1 − RR)
窦性心率
心动过缓 < 60, 正常 60–100, 心动过速 > 100 次/分
逸搏心率
交界性 40–60, 室性 20–40 次/分
快速性心律
SVT 150–250 /min(窄), VT > 100 /min(宽)

方法

  1. 心率:节律规则时,用 300 除以两个 R 波之间的大格数,或用 1500 除以小格数;节律不规则时,数 6 秒内的 QRS 波群数并乘以 10。
  2. 节律:比较 R–R 间期。相等为规则;有重复规律为规律性不规则;完全没有规律为绝对不规则。
  3. P 波:II 导联中每个 QRS 之前是否都有直立的 P 波,且形态一致?注意寻找颤动波或锯齿状波、倒置的 P 波以及后面没有 QRS 的 P 波。
  4. PR 间期:从 P 波起点到 QRS 起点,正常为 0.12–0.20 s 且恒定。注意它是逐渐延长、在脱漏搏动之前保持固定,还是随机变化。
  5. QRS 时限:低于 0.12 s 为窄;0.12 s 或以上为宽。然后命名节律,QT 用 QTc = QT/√RR(Bazett),时间以秒计。

优先排序与委派

方法

  1. 问自己:如果什么都不做,什么会最快伤害患者。
  2. 应用 ABC(心脏骤停时为 C-A-B),然后是 Maslow 需求层次:生理需要先于安全,安全先于心理需要。
  3. 比较各选项:急性先于慢性,不稳定先于稳定,意外先于预期,全身性先于局部,并将每项发现与患者的基线对照。
  4. 除非是紧急情况,否则先评估再行动;然后选择其他步骤所依赖的那一步。
  5. 委派时核对五项正确:任务、情境、人员、指示和监督。评估、宣教和评价仍由注册护士负责。

2练习题

1.内外科护理:心血管与呼吸中等

After repair of an abdominal aortic aneurysm, which regular assessment helps detect a blocked graft or clots in the legs?

  1. ATesting the gag reflex every four hours after surgery
  2. BChecking the pupils' response to light
  3. CMeasuring the blood glucose every hour through the night
  4. DChecking leg pulses, colour, warmth and sensation
2.内外科护理:心血管与呼吸困难

A ventilated patient with severe ARDS is to be turned prone. What is the main reason, and the key nursing risk?

  1. AIt lowers the blood pressure; the main risk is rebound hypertension
  2. BIt improves digestion and gut motility; the main risk is constipation
  3. CIt treats infection; the risk is fever
  4. DIt improves oxygenation; risks are pressure injury and tube displacement
3.内外科护理:神经、内分泌与肾脏中等

An 85-year-old care home resident becomes newly confused and is falling more often. A UTI is one possibility. Why?

  1. AConfusion is the only symptom of a UTI at any age
  2. BUrinary infections always cause a high fever in older adults
  3. COlder adults often show infection as confusion
  4. DA UTI cannot occur in people over 80
4.内外科护理:神经、内分泌与肾脏困难

An 89-year-old with stage 5 CKD and severe heart failure, who has capacity, decides not to start dialysis. What is the nurse's best response?

  1. AStop all care, because nothing more can be done
  2. BTell the patient they must start dialysis by law
  3. CRespect the decision and support symptom-focused care
  4. DAsk the family to change the patient's mind
5.内外科护理:消化、围手术期与肿瘤中等

Which group of findings suggests obstruction of the bile duct?

  1. AJaundice, dark urine, pale stools and itching
  2. BRed urine, black stools and a high blood glucose
  3. CNormal skin colour with diarrhoea and fever
  4. DPale urine, dark stools and a flapping tremor
6.内外科护理:消化、围手术期与肿瘤困难

A patient taking IV antibiotics has three unexplained loose stools in 24 hours. What should the nurse do first?

  1. AIsolate the patient and send a stool sample for testing
  2. BMove the patient to a bay with other patients to watch them closely
  3. CGive loperamide after each loose stool and continue as usual
  4. DWait two days to see if the diarrhoea settles
7.临床护理中等

After a needlestick injury from a patient known to have HIV, why must the nurse report it immediately?

  1. AThe patient will need antibiotics
  2. BPost-exposure prophylaxis works best when started as soon as possible
  3. CThe needle must be sent for culture
  4. DThe nurse must be tested for HIV the same day to confirm infection
8.临床护理困难

After a high spinal cord injury, a patient has low blood pressure with a slow heart rate and warm, dry skin. What is most likely?

  1. ASeptic shock
  2. BHypovolaemic shock
  3. CCardiac tamponade
  4. DNeurogenic shock
9.实验室检查值与电解质中等

A patient starts lisinopril (an ACE inhibitor). Which laboratory values should the nurse expect to be monitored?

  1. AALT and bilirubin
  2. BCalcium and phosphate
  3. CPotassium and creatinine
  4. DTSH and free T4
10.实验室检查值与电解质困难

A patient's potassium is 7.2 mEq/L, and the monitor shows wide QRS complexes. Several treatments are prescribed. Which should be given first?

  1. AAn oral potassium binder dose
  2. BIV furosemide (a loop diuretic)
  3. CUrgent hemodialysis session
  4. DIV calcium gluconate (or chloride)
11.动脉血气分析解读中等

某练习血气显示 PaCO₂ 32 mmHg (4.3 kPa)。利用规则:在急性呼吸性碱中毒中,PaCO₂ 每比 40 低出 10 mmHg,HCO₃⁻ 下降 2 mmol/L,以HCO₃⁻ 24 mmol/L 为起点,求预期HCO₃⁻。

PaCO₂ 32 mmHg (4.3 kPa)基线值: 40 mmHg, 24 mmol/L
HCO₃⁻ = mmol/L
12.动脉血气分析解读困难

练习数值:Na⁺ 138,Cl⁻ 114,HCO₃⁻ 14 mmol/L,白蛋白 22 g/L。求经白蛋白校正的阴离子间隙 AGc = AG + 0.25·(40 − 白蛋白)。

Na⁺ 138 mmol/LCl⁻ 114 mmol/LHCO₃⁻ 14 mmol/L白蛋白 22 g/L
AGc = mmol/L
13.心电图节律条带解读中等
II25 mm/s · 10 mm/mV心房颤动一度房室传导阻滞窦性心动过缓交界性心律

解读这条 II 导联心律条带。这是什么节律?点击你的答案。

II 导联,25 mm/s,10 mm/mV1 个小格 = 0.04 s,1 个大格 = 0.20 s条带长度 6 s
  1. 1心房颤动
  2. 2一度房室传导阻滞
  3. 3窦性心动过缓
  4. 4交界性心律
14.心电图节律条带解读困难
II25 mm/s · 10 mm/mV窦性心律伴宽 QRS室性自搏心律双腔(房室)起搏心律起搏心律,夺获失败

这位患者装有起搏器。请解读这条 II 导联心电图条带。点击你的答案。

II 导联,25 mm/s,10 mm/mV1 个小格 = 0.04 s,1 个大格 = 0.20 s条带长度 6 s
  1. 1窦性心律伴宽 QRS
  2. 2室性自搏心律
  3. 3双腔(房室)起搏心律
  4. 4起搏心律,夺获失败
15.优先排序与委派中等

A patient with severe neutropenia needs a room. Which roommate is the safest choice?

  1. AA patient with influenza
  2. BA patient with C. difficile diarrhea
  3. CA patient after a knee replacement with no signs of infection
  4. DA patient with an infected, draining leg wound
16.优先排序与委派困难

A patient in labor is receiving oxytocin, and the fetal monitor shows repeated late decelerations. What should the nurse do first?

  1. AIncrease the oxytocin rate
  2. BPlace the patient flat on her back
  3. CEncourage the patient to start pushing
  4. DStop the oxytocin infusion

3溶液

1.内外科护理:心血管与呼吸

答案: D · Checking leg pulses, colour, warmth and sensation

为什么是这个答案

After aortic surgery, distal pulses, skin colour, temperature, capillary refill, movement and sensation are checked often and compared with baseline. Loss of pulses, pallor or pain suggests graft occlusion or emboli and must be reported at once. Urine output is also monitored for renal perfusion.

答案

D · Checking leg pulses, colour, warmth and sensation
2.内外科护理:心血管与呼吸

答案: D · It improves oxygenation; risks are pressure injury and tube displacement

为什么是这个答案

Prone positioning improves ventilation–perfusion matching and oxygenation and improves survival in severe ARDS. Turning needs a trained team. Risks include accidental extubation or line removal and pressure damage to the face, chest and knees, so careful positioning and skin checks are essential.

答案

D · It improves oxygenation; risks are pressure injury and tube displacement
3.内外科护理:神经、内分泌与肾脏

答案: C · Older adults often show infection as confusion

为什么是这个答案

In older adults, infections such as UTI may present with delirium, falls or reduced mobility rather than dysuria or fever. Other causes of delirium must also be considered, and urine tests alone can mislead.

答案

C · Older adults often show infection as confusion
4.内外科护理:神经、内分泌与肾脏

答案: C · Respect the decision and support symptom-focused care

为什么是这个答案

A competent patient can refuse dialysis. The nurse makes sure the choice is informed, respects it and supports conservative kidney management, with symptom control, advance care planning and palliative care input.

答案

C · Respect the decision and support symptom-focused care
5.内外科护理:消化、围手术期与肿瘤

答案: A · Jaundice, dark urine, pale stools and itching

为什么是这个答案

When bile cannot reach the gut, conjugated bilirubin enters the blood and urine (dark urine), stools lose their colour, and bile salts in the skin cause itching. Causes include gallstones and pancreatic cancer.

答案

A · Jaundice, dark urine, pale stools and itching
6.内外科护理:消化、围手术期与肿瘤

答案: A · Isolate the patient and send a stool sample for testing

为什么是这个答案

Unexplained diarrhoea in a patient on antibiotics should be treated as possible C. difficile. The patient is isolated promptly, a stool sample is sent and the antibiotics are reviewed with the medical team.

答案

A · Isolate the patient and send a stool sample for testing
7.临床护理

答案: B · Post-exposure prophylaxis works best when started as soon as possible

为什么是这个答案

HIV post-exposure prophylaxis should be started as soon as possible after exposure, ideally within hours. Occupational health or the emergency department will assess the risk and arrange follow-up testing.

答案

B · Post-exposure prophylaxis works best when started as soon as possible
8.临床护理

答案: D · Neurogenic shock

为什么是这个答案

Neurogenic shock from cervical or high thoracic injury causes vasodilation and bradycardia because sympathetic outflow is lost. Hypovolaemic shock usually causes tachycardia and cool, pale skin.

答案

D · Neurogenic shock
9.实验室检查值与电解质

答案: C · Potassium and creatinine

为什么是这个答案

ACE inhibitors reduce aldosterone, so potassium can rise, and they lower the filtration pressure in the kidney, so creatinine can rise. Both are checked before and soon after starting or increasing the dose.核对依据: Hyperkalemia · StatPearls (NCBI Bookshelf) (2025)

答案

C · Potassium and creatinine
10.实验室检查值与电解质

答案: D · IV calcium gluconate (or chloride)

为什么是这个答案

With ECG changes, IV calcium is given first to stabilize the cardiac membrane within minutes. It does not lower potassium, so insulin with glucose (and sometimes albuterol/salbutamol) follows to shift potassium into cells, then binders, diuretics or dialysis remove it.核对依据: High potassium level - Medical Encyclopedia · MedlinePlus (NIH) (2025)

答案

D · IV calcium gluconate (or chloride)
11.动脉血气分析解读

答案: HCO₃⁻ = 22.4 mmol/L

预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。

PaCO₂ 的变化

|32 − 40| = 8 mmHg → 0.8 × 10 mmHg

HCO₃⁻ 的预期值

HCO₃⁻ = 24 − 2·0.8 = 22.4 mmol/L

答案

HCO₃⁻ = 22.4 mmol/L
12.动脉血气分析解读

答案: AGc = 14.5 mmol/L

预期代偿:代谢性酸中毒时,温特公式预测 PaCO₂ = 1.5·HCO₃⁻ + 8 ± 2 mmHg;实测值高于该范围提示合并呼吸性酸中毒,低于该范围提示合并呼吸性碱中毒。阴离子间隙 AG = Na⁺ − (Cl⁻ + HCO₃⁻),正常约为 8–12 mmol/L,用于区分高阴离子间隙与正常阴离子间隙代谢性酸中毒;低白蛋白会掩盖升高的间隙(白蛋白低于 4.0 的部分,每 g/dL 加 2.5)。Δ 比值 (AG − 12)/(24 − HCO₃⁻) 约在 0.8 到 2 之间符合单纯高间隙酸中毒(有些教材用 1 代替 0.8),低于此范围提示合并正常间隙酸中毒,高于 2 提示合并代谢性碱中毒。

阴离子间隙

AG = 138 − (114 + 14) = 10

白蛋白校正

10 + 0.25·(40 − 22) = 14.5 mmol/L

答案

AGc = 14.5 mmol/L

校正后高于约 12:阴离子间隙升高。

13.心电图节律条带解读

答案: 交界性心律

节律标准(II 导联):窦性心律每个 QRS 之前都有直立的 P 波,PR 恒定为 0.12–0.20 s,QRS 狭窄:60–100 次/分为正常窦性心律,低于 60 为窦性心动过缓,高于 100 为窦性心动过速。心房颤动:无 P 波,基线呈颤动,R–R 绝对不规则。心房扑动:约 250–350 次/分的锯齿状扑动波,伴固定的传导比例,如 2:1 或 4:1。一度房室传导阻滞:窦性心律,PR 恒定且大于 0.20 s。交界性心律:窄 QRS,40–60 次/分,P 波缺失或倒置(PR 低于 0.12 s,或 P 波在 QRS 之后)。室性早搏(PVC)是提前出现的宽大(0.12 s 或以上)、形态怪异的 QRS,没有 P 波,T 波方向相反,通常有完全性代偿间歇;二联律是指每隔一个搏动就有一个室性早搏。

五个步骤

1. 心率:R–R = 31 个小格,1500 ÷ 31 ≈ 48 次/分。
2. 节律:规则,每个 R–R 均为 1.24 s。
3. P 波:倒置,紧邻每个 QRS 之前。
4. PR 间期:0.08 s,短于 0.12 s。
5. QRS:0.08 s,狭窄(低于 0.12 s)。

解读

交界性心律

答案

交界性心律
14.心电图节律条带解读

答案: 双腔(房室)起搏心律

起搏心律:起搏器脉冲表现为一条细而垂直的起搏钉样信号。心室钉样信号之后的 QRS 是增宽的(0.12 s 或以上),因为冲动是从导线经心肌传播,而不是经传导系统;右心室起搏时,在 II 导联上通常以负向为主。P 波之前的钉样信号表示心房起搏;双腔(房室)起搏器则表现为心房钉样信号加 P 波,再经过程控的房室延迟,出现心室钉样信号和增宽的 QRS。夺获是指每个钉样信号之后都跟着一次除极。夺获失败是指钉样信号之后没有 P 波或 QRS;感知不良(钉样信号无视患者自己的心搏)和起搏不良(该出现钉样信号时没有)是另外两种典型的故障。

五个步骤

1. 心率:R–R = 25 个小格,1500 ÷ 25 ≈ 60 次/分。
2. 节律:规则,每个 R–R 均为 1.00 s。
3. P 波:每个 P 波都跟在自己的起搏钉样信号之后(心房起搏)。
4. 房室间期:第二个钉样信号在第一个之后 0.16 s 出现(程控的房室延迟)。
5. QRS:0.16 s,增宽,紧跟在第二个钉样信号之后(心室起搏)。

解读

双腔(房室)起搏心律

答案

双腔(房室)起搏心律

起搏产生的 QRS 本来就是增宽的;不要称它为束支传导阻滞或室性心律。

15.优先排序与委派

答案: C · A patient after a knee replacement with no signs of infection

为什么是这个答案

A neutropenic patient cannot fight infection well, so the roommate must not have a transmissible infection. A clean postoperative patient is the safest choice; ideally the neutropenic patient has a single room.

答案

C · A patient after a knee replacement with no signs of infection
16.优先排序与委派

答案: D · Stop the oxytocin infusion

为什么是这个答案

Late decelerations point to reduced blood flow through the placenta. Stopping oxytocin reduces contractions; the nurse then turns the patient onto her side, gives IV fluids as prescribed and informs the provider.

答案

D · Stop the oxytocin infusion

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